Biswarup Chandra Dey

In this article, we discuss a rare transition metal gold structure and its 31^st characteristics. Let’s talk about the expensive transition metal gold and its important facts.

Gold is a common chemical name its Latin name is Aurum and denoted by Au. Gold is d block transition group 11^th element. It is a 5d element and due to transition metal gold structure shows metallic property and it obeys the crystal field theory. In gold structure, there is 6s orbital is present and due to the 6s orbital, it shows abnormal behavior which comes from relativistic contraction.

The electronic configuration of gold structure is [Xe]4f¹⁴5d¹⁰6s¹, so the most stable oxidation form of gold is Au(III) because in that form it has complete f orbital and gains the most stable form. Gold can form different organometallic molecules as its bonding is quite similar to 3d elements.

Some important facts about gold

Gold is present in the earth’s crust so, it is extracted mainly cyanide process. The gold ore goes through dilute sodium cyanide solution to make the alkaline with lime water presence of air for oxidation purposes.

4Au + 8NaCN + 2H₂O +O₂ =  4Na[Au(CN)₂] + 4NaOH

The solution is then filtered and gold is deposited from the filtrate by zinc shavings.

Zn +2Na[Au(CN)₂] = 2Au + Na₂[Zn(CN)₂]

The zinc is dissolved out by dilute sulfuric acid and then it dried residue of gold is melted under the borax.

The crude gold is not pure, it contains copper, silver, and sometimes lead also. The lead part is removed by the process called cupellation. The copper part is removed by oxidative fusion with borax and nitrate. The silver part may be removed by boiling with concentrated sulfuric acid up to when silver is deposited.

The best method to extract gold from crude is electrolytic refining using a solution of HAuCl₄ and crude gold deposit at an anode.

Amalgamation is also a method to separate the native gold from alluvial sand. In this method, we separate the mercury part from the alluvial sand to get pure gold.

The melting point and boiling point of gold are 1337.33 K and 3243 K respectively. Due to heavy metals, the energy required for breaking the interstitial bond is high. The color of gold is metallic yellow. Its ΔH atomization is 380 KJ/mol. The density of gold is 19.32 g/mol so we can see that it is a much heavier element.

The electrical resistivity at 20⁰C is 2.35 ohm-cm. the electronegativity is 2.4 at the Pauling scale so it is seen that gold has an affinity toward electronegativity, as Au^– is stable due to a complete 6s orbital. The first, second, and third ionization energy of a gold structure is 890, 1973, and 2895 kJ/mol as electrons are released from s, d orbitals.

1.    What is the gold structure?

The gold structure is FCC (face-centered cubic), in the solid-state which is also known for its characteristic color. Even the metallic yellow color of the gold structure arises due to absorption in the near UV region.

The color of the gold structure is for the excitation of electrons from the d band to the s-p conduction band which is absorbed in the blue region of color. In the FCC structure, net number of atoms = 8*1/8 +6*1/2 =1+3 =4.

In the FCC structure, we know the , so % of occupied space = (4*4/3πr³)/a³ *100

So, for FCC % of occupied space is 74.05%, so the % of void space is 25.95 and it is proved that FCC is the most tightly packed cube system.

2.    Is gold a transition metal?

Gold is group 11^th element and belongs to the d block 5d element, so gold is a transition metal. Transition metals are those which have partially filled or filled d electrons in any oxidation state. From the electronic configuration of gold, it is evident that it has filled 5d orbitals, and up to +1 oxidation state, its d orbital is filled.

As gold is a transition element then it shows transition metal properties like CFT. The most stable oxidation state of the gold structure in bond formation is +2. The +2 oxidation state of the gold structure is the d⁹ system and shows different CFT properties.

In the gold structure, Crystal field theory gold is splitting in square planner geometry. Because gold has filled d electron and f electrons also, for those electrons the effective nuclear charge of Gold structure is highly increased and the interaction between gold and other ligands also increases in such a way that gold structure split in a square planner manner. Actually, the CFT value is increasing from 3d-4d-5d orbitals.

There are five subsets in d orbitals, they are d_xy, d_yz, d_xz, d_x²–_y², and d_z². These five sets are categorized in two different forms according to their energy. First, three are called t_2g, and later two are called e_g. the e_g set of orbitals are directly involved in the bond formation with ligands, so e_g has higher energy than t_2g.

The electronic configuration of the gold structure is, [Xe]4f¹⁴5d¹⁰6s¹, so in Au(II) two electrons lacking from the gold structure, and gold releases one electron from the  6s orbital and another one from the 5d orbital. So now in 5d orbitals, there are nine electrons in Au(II) system.

Those nine electrons are arranged in the five subsets, so the last subset of d_x²–_y² gets only one electron and the other gets paired. Now in the crystal field theory, the energy difference between t_2g and e_g is called the 10D_q value, by this value, we can predict the stability of the gold structure.

After full splitting, the energy of d_xy will energize in such a way that it crosses the barycentre and reaches d_x²–_y². So, now the energy difference between  d_x²–_y² and d_xy is equal to the 10D_q value.

The energy of each t_2g orbital is -0.4Δ₀ and the energy of each orbital of e_g is -0.6Δ₀. only these two orbitals are contributed to the crystal field stabilization energy because other orbitals do not contribute toward the 10Dq value. There is one electron in d_x²–_y² orbital and two electrons in d_xy orbital. So, the net crystal field stabilization energy of gold structure in its +2 oxidation state is, 1*(-0.6Δ₀) + 2*(-0.4Δ₀) = -.2 Δ₀. The negative sign indicates the stabilization of the gold structure.

Gold structure always forms a low spin complex with any kind of ligands. Because the effective nuclear charge is higher for gold structure due to the presence of d and f electrons and for this reason metal- ligands interaction will be high and therefore the Δ₀ value also increases and the complex formation occurs with a low spin of the metal center.

Au(II) complexes are a d⁹ system having 2-fold ground state degeneracy, hence it is subject to extensive tetragonal distortion according to the Jahn teller theorem and by s-d mixing it will be elongated- the complex becomes a square planner. In this square planner geometry, the Δ₀ value is very high and it is, and for this reason, the sole electron from the d_x^2-_y² orbital may be readily lost – leading to the formation of Au(III) complex – the process leads to a decrease in energy in splitting diagram.

The electron lost from one Au(II) complex molecule may be readily accepted by the neighboring complex Au(II) molecule, the latter is reduced to a corresponding Au(I) complex. This process is also favored since there will be an additional stabilization of the d¹⁰ configuration which is exchange energy. Thus the net reaction is the disproportionation of Au(II) complex from Au(I) and Au(III).

3.    Is gold a compound?

Gold is a transition metal and a group 11^th element, but it can form different compounds because it can show different oxidation states.

Au(III) compound

In gold structure, Au(III) is the most common oxidation state of golf, in this oxidation state it can form different binary compounds and complexes.

Au₂O₃.H₂O is brown-colored amorphous precipitated by the reaction of alkali from the solution which contains AuCl₄^–. The nature of the complex is amphoteric, which can dissolve in excess alkali or acid into an anionic complex.

Au(OH)₃ + NaOH = Na[Au(OH)₄]

Au(OH)₃ + 4HNO₃ = H[Au(NO₃)₄] + 3H₂O

From the hydrated compounds, an anhydrous oxide is may be obtained by carefully heating with P₄O_10. It can be decomposed above the temperature of 160⁰C to Au₂O and gold. The crystal structure of the AuO₄ complex is square planar sharing with oxygen.

Another molecule Fulminating gold is an olive-green color that is explosive powder. The molecule is obtained by the digestion of Au2O3 or any hydrate reaction with ammonia. this dry powder can explode with fulminates on heating and the possible composition is HN=Au-NH2. 1.5H2O.

The sulfur-containing gold molecule is Au2S3 is cannot be obtained from the aqueous solution because it is decomposed by the water. It is prepared another method by passing through H2S gas over the dry LiAuCl4.2H2O at a very low temperature.

2liAuCl4 + 3H2S = Au2S3 + 2LiCl + 6HCl

That LiCl can be separated by the extraction with an a basic solution and the black powder is dried at moderate temperature.

The fluoride of gold, specifically Au(III) with fluorides is prepared by the reaction of elemental fluorine on Au2Cl6 at a very high temperature like 3000C.

The reaction goes as sequences like,

AuF₃ is a crystal of orange color and it can decompose at 500⁰ to gold and elemental fluorine. The crystal structure is a square planar shape with cis fluorine atoms in the helical chain. The terminal Au-F bond distance is lower than the bridge Au-F bond.

Au2Cl6 molecule is red in color and it can be directly synthesized by refluxing HAuCl4 with thionyl chloride.

2H3O⁺AuCl4^– + 2SOCl2 = Au2Cl6 + 2SO2 + 6HCl

The structure of the dimeric molecule is planar and it is a diamagnetic complex in the solid as well as vapor phase also.

Au2Cl6 can dissolve in hydrochloric acid to form chloroauric acid. The evaporation of HAuCl4 gives a yellow-colored crystal of H3O⁺AuCl4^–.3H2O. NaAuCl4.2H2O and KAuCl4 both gold (III) salts are water-soluble.

Au(II) compound

In the gold structure, Au(II) is an unfavorable oxidation state as compared to Au(I) and Au(III). Au(II) complexes are very rare. There are many examples of Au(II) complexes but they are mixed oxidation states of the gold structure.

In dinuclear compounds, we can find the Au-Au bonds in gold structure which may be formed by the oxidation addition of the Au(I) complex.

Here the main driving force of the Au(II) complex is the bidentate phosphine ligands hold two gold atoms in close range in rigid conformation.

Au(I) compound

Only a halogenated molecule is observed for Au(I) state. But sometimes a violet-grey colored molecule named Au2O has obtained by the process of dehydrating AuOH, but the authentication of this molecule is not confirmed.

Au2S appears dark brown in color and is precipitated by the saturation of a solution of Kau(CN)2 with hydrogen sulfide gas, followed by the addition of hydrochloric acid. This is insoluble in water and in dilute acids too. But it can dissolve in the aqua regia and aqueous KCN. It is also soluble in excess sodium sulfide solution.

4.     Is gold inorganic or organic?

Gold is an element and it is not formed via hydrocarbon. In the gold structure, we can see that there are d electrons present. Which makes gold a transition metal. Metal cannot be an organic molecule.

When gold forms different kinds of molecules in the gold structure they are forming via electrostatic interaction of different oxidation states of the gold structure. So, all the gold compounds are inorganic. Gold is a 5d element, so the effective nuclear charge is very high and there is no possibility of hybridization of gold structure. Gold has a higher coordination number according to its respective oxidation state.

So, the molecule of gold is not covalent, although gold can form different organometallic clusters by the reaction with different π-acidic ligands, the nature of the complex is low spin in the gold structure. The electronegativity of gold structure is so high and the electron affinity also for gold is very high, so it can be ionized when a gold molecule is formed.

So, gold is an inorganic substance when it forms chloride or any other salts.

5.    Is gold an element?

The elemental form of gold is Au. It is a d-block element, especially a heavier metal. The elemental form does not change when it shows a different oxidation state the respective charge is placed above the element.

The atomic number of gold is 79 which means it is the 79^th element in the periodic table.

6.    Is gold an isotope?

Two or more species of the same elements having the same atomic number but differing in atomic mass is called the isotope of the first element. Isotopes have the same or nearly the same chemical behavior but their physical property may be different.

The mass number of gold is generally 197 and the isotope having 195 mass number is the stable isotope of Au. Apart from them, gold has 36 radioactive isotopes, but radioactive isotopes have a short life span. 195_Au has the highest half-life among the other isotopes of gold. The half-life of that isotope of gold is 186 days.

Half-life is the time for elements how much time required for its half of the portion will be dissociated. If we consider 100% of the isotopes then after 186 days it remains only 50% of it, the rest 50% are dissociated and it takes 186 days for the dissociation.

Isotopes are born for some nuclear fission and nuclear fusion process. Sometimes α and β decoys are also responsible for the formation of isotopes. Gold is a heavier element and it can dissociate with different small elements by accepting suitable energy, so it has more number of isotopes. The higher the number of atomic mass higher will be the number of isotopes, but in the case of hydrogen it has three isotopes but the mass number is 1 for hydrogen. So exceptional cases are always present.

The nature of α and β decoys can decide that how many isotopes are radioactive or how many are stable. Gold is a 5d element and it is a later element in the periodic table and near to radioactive elements, so it has many more radioactive isotopes.

7.    Is gold on the periodic table?

Every metal or every element in chemistry should have a particular position in the periodic table. Gold is present in the 11^th group 6^th period and d block element.

Gold is a transition metal and it is a 5d element which means it has a d orbital and the valence electrons should be contained in the d orbital. As it is a 6th-period element so there is an involvement of 6s orbital for gold structure. The electronic configuration of the gold structure is, [Xe]4f¹⁴5d¹⁰6s¹.

Due to the involvement of the 6s orbital its shows relativistic contraction and for this reason its shows different abnormal behavior. Due to the presence of d and f orbital, it has a poor screening effect.

The outermost electrons of an atom experience two types of forces- nuclear attraction force and repulsion with the inner electrons. It is due to the second force that the outermost electrons cannot experience the total nuclear charge but only apportion of it known as an effective nuclear charge. In fact, the inner electrons practically behave as a screen between the nucleus and the outermost electron- the phenomenon refers to as the screening effect.

The greater the penetrating power of an orbital better will be the extent of screening of the orbital electron density. Since the order of orbital penetratively hence s>p>d>f. hence the order of screening is also be s>p>d>f.

In fact, it is due to the greater diffuseness of the electron density in that d and f orbitals they exhibit a poor screening effect.

With the screening effect and relativistic contraction of several properties of the gold are altered.

Down the group from Copper to silver the principal quantum number increases but the configurations are similar. Thus as expected the ionization energy decreases with an increase in principle quantum number. In the case of gold it is due to the extensive relativistic contraction of the 6s orbital that the nuclear attraction for the outermost 6s electrons increases.

Also, it is due to the relativistic contraction of 6s and 4f orbitals being subject to relativistic expansion- screening by the 4f orbitals becomes even poorer  – effective nuclear charge increases to a large extent. Thus the relativistic contraction of 6s orbital couple with f contraction accounts for the extremely high nuclear attraction for 6s electrons.

This factor highly predominates over the effect of an increase in principle quantum number from Ag to Au. Thus ionization energy of gold structure much much higher than Ag.

From the electronic configuration of gold, it is evident it is due to the presence of 14 4f electrons the effective nuclear charge of gold structure increases to such an extent that its electron affinity becomes extremely high.

For Au, the electron will be accepted in the 6s orbital. Since the 6s orbital is subject to relativistic contraction. Its energy decreases and becomes so low as compared to that of 6p that the 6p orbital practically behave as post valence orbital.

Thus, the configuration of Au^– is practically the filled one comparable to those of noble gases- hence the name noble liquid configuration. Thus, to attain the noble liquid configuration gold will accept an electron readily – the electron affinity of gold is extremely high.

CsAu is a stable molecule and it is an example of the abnormal behavior of gold in the periodic table.

Cs is an alkali metal having only one electron in the outermost shell. Also, it is due to the larger size of cs the nuclear attraction for the outermost electron is extremely low. Thus first ionization of Cs is low. Cs can readily lose an electron (undergoes ionization) – the electron lost can be readily gained by Au since the electron affinity of Au is extremely high due to the above reasons.

Aurophilicity

The au atoms have been found to have weak interactions with the neighboring Au atoms- Aurophilic interaction. The major cause for this interaction is that each of the Au atoms has an inherent tendency to accept an electron, in order to assume the noble liquid configuration. Thus in an effort to attain the noble liquid configuration, each Au atom will try to draw electron density with neighboring Au atoms – thereby leading to interaction (Aurophilic interaction) between them, and the phenomenon is referred to as Aurophilicity.

8.    Is gold polar or nonpolar?

It is very difficult to say for an element is polar or nonpolar in nature. Polarity arises due to the resultant dipole-moment value. Again, for a molecule, if the electronegativity difference is so high then we can say the molecule will be polar.

In the gold structure, there is no factor present which makes the gold polar or maybe non-polar. The electronegativity of gold is very high, but there must be some elements present so we can compare the difference. In the elemental state, this comparison is not allowed. When gold is making a molecule in its most stable oxidation state in the +3 oxidation state, it generally formed halogenated molecules.

Halogens are most electronegative so there is a chance of higher electronegativity difference and the shape of the molecule is asymmetric because there is an odd number of atoms that will be present as gold is in a +3 oxidation state. So there may be a chance of getting some resultant dipole-moment and making the molecule polar.

But in elemental form gold structure is non-polar. When gold behaves as an anion the size of that anions are very large and it can be polarizable by any cation and then it may be polar.

9.    Is gold diatomic?

In the elemental state, the gold structure is exhibited as Au, so it is monoatomic in nature. All the metal atoms are monoatomic.

Metal atoms are mostly electropositive and due to higher electropositivity if they exist as the diatomic form then there will be extensive repulsion between two same electrostatic forces. Again, one metal can easily release the electron but that electron accepted by another one is very difficult. Because most the metal has lower electron affinity.

But in the case of gold structure, the electron affinity is higher so it can readily accept the electron from other gold and form a noble liquid configuration. That’s the reason there is aurophilicity observed for the gold structure. Due to aurophilic interaction, there is small interaction occurs but they cannot exist as diatomic form due to their larger size.

10. Is gold magnetic?

Pure gold does not stick to the magnet but if there is some allow present in it then it can be stuck to the magnet. The magnetic property of gold is considered by the electrons in the valence shell.

All the metals are magnetic in nature mat be diamagnetic or paramagnetic depending upon the different oxidation states also.

11. Is gold diamagnetic?

The electronic configuration of the gold structure is [Xe]4f¹⁴5d¹⁰6s¹. So from the electronic configuration, we can say that there is one unpaired electron present in the 6s orbital of the gold structure. So, in neutral state gold is diamagnetic in nature.

For any metal or atoms, if all the electrons are paired in the form then it is called paramagnetic and if at least one unpaired electron is present then it is called diamagnetic.

For a neutral gold structure, there is only one unpaired electron is present so it is diamagnetic. But the most stable oxidation state is +1 for gold structure. In Au(I) form all the electrons in the 5d and 4f orbitals are paired in form, so in that state gold is paramagnetic.

Again, in the +3 oxidation state, two electrons were removed from 5d orbitals, and according to Hund’s rule, there are two subsets containing two unpaired electrons and making gold diamagnetic.

We can calculate the magnetic value of a diatomic substance by using the number of unpaired electrons.

12. Is gold soluble?

Gold is soluble in the following reagents,

• aqua regia
• the mixture of nascent chlorine
• solutions of nitrates, sulfates e.g. bisulfate of soda
• strong acid like hydrochloric acid

13. Is gold water-soluble?

any transition metal is insoluble in water, so gold also insoluble in water. Actually, it does not react with oxygen, air, or any kind of liquid except aqua-regia. So, there is no chance for gold to be soluble in water.

14. Is gold conductive?

Any metal is a good conductor of heat and electricity. So gold is also a good conductor of heat as well as electricity.

15. Is gold electrically conductive?

Gold is an electrically conductive agent. Because gold is a metal and for every metal, there is the difference between the conduction band and valence band is very low. Electrons from the conduction band to the valence band are easily transferred and required lower energy for this reason the mobility of ions increases and for this reason, they can conduct electricity in a faster way.

When gold is in an ionic form that is when it exists in a +1 or +3 oxidation state then the electrical conductivity also increases and for this reason it can be disproportionate to the lower oxidation state.

16. Is gold a mineral?

Minerals are those which is naturally occurring in the crystalline solid forms, they are created by the humans or animals’ dead bodies and form a crystal structure. On the other hand, earth metals are those found in the earth’s crust in crystalline form. So basically gold is a mineral and metal both. But gold is not an ore.

17. Is gold malleable?

yes, gold is extremely malleable. Among all the metals only gold is malleable. It can be beaten out into sheets of about 5*10^-5 mm thickness. For this malleability, it is used in ornaments. Different types of ornaments are formed by using this property. Among all the versions 18 carat is the least malleable version of gold and the highest is 24 carat. It depends upon how many impurities should be added.

18. Is gold brittle?

Yes, gold is brittle and one gram of gold is beaten to make 24 mm sheets.

19. Is gold ductile?

All the metal has the property of ductility. Gold is a transition metal so yes gold is ductile. From one ounce of gold to 80 km of gold, wire making is possible.

20. Is gold dense?

Yes, gold is a very denser element. The density of gold is 19.32 g/mol that why it is called heavy metal.

21. Is gold heavier than silver?

Yes, gold is much heavier than silver. The density of gold is almost twice the density of silver.

22. Is gold stronger than iron?

The unalloyed and pure iron is much stronger than gold.

23. Is gold lighter than water?

Gold is metal and obviously, it is not lighter than water. It is almost 19 times heavier than water.

24. Is gold hard or soft?

Pure gold is very hard but when it is mixed with impurity or alloy then it becomes soft.

25. Is gold endothermic or exothermic?

The process of solidifying gold is exothermic.

26. Is gold hydrophobic?

On the gold surface, there is some impurities are present like carbon and for this reason, gold is hydrophoure but clean gold is hydrophilic.

27. Is gold transparent?

The density of gold is very high and for this reason gold is opaque, it is not transparent.

28. Is gold crystalline or amorphous?

The gold structure is a face-centered cubic structure, so it is crystalline solid.

29. Is gold radioactive?

Gold has 41 isotopes only one is stable and the rest of all are radioactive.

30. Is gold reactive?

The gold structure is one of the noblest in the periodic table and it is generally an unreactive element.

31. Is gold stable or unstable?

Gold has radioactive isotopes and those isotopes are very reactive but the normal isotope is stable.

Conclusion

Gold is a very malleable and stable element.  For its 6s and 4f orbital, it shows abnormal behavior. The brittleness of gold is very high that’s why it is used for making ornaments. The medicinal chemistry of gold is well known. Different kind of drug is made from gold.

Read more about following Structure & Characteristics

ZnO ZnS Fe3O4 NaClO2 Lithium Krypton Neon Peptide Bond NaHSO4 KMnO4

NaH2PO4 FeO Fe2S3 Hyaluronic Acid Disulfide Bond Alanine Amino Acid Glycolic Acid Heptane Glycine ZnSO4

Glutamic Acid Graphite Hexanoic Acid

In this article, we learn about a natural fuel like gasoline and its structure, property, and many more facts.

Gasoline structure is a hydrocarbon compound, so it is an organic molecule. The general formula of gasoline is C_nH_2n+2. So, gasoline is an alkane molecule. Petrol is one example of gasoline. Gasoline structure is as similar to alkane structure. Higher-order alkane mainly from pentane to decane or so on are liquids and the mixture of them is used as gasoline.

Gasoline is an extremely flammable molecule. It has a low flash point of -23⁰ C. like all other liquid hydrocarbons gasoline burns in a limited range of its vapor phase. It is highly volatile so it is dangerous if its source of ignition is present.

Some important facts about gasoline

The molecular weight of gasoline is initially 108 g/mol. It depends upon the higher-order alkanes which should involve. The color of the gasoline structure is mainly colorless to pale brown or pink, it also depends on which alkane is involved in the composition.

Initially, the boiling point is 39⁰C after 105 distillation the boiling point becomes 60⁰C, after 50% and 90% distillation the boiling point increases to 110⁰ C and 170⁰C respectively. Finally, the boiling point will be 204⁰C.

The density of the gasoline structure is 0.7 g/cm³. The odor is gasoline odor and the physical state of the gasoline structure is liquid.

Now we discuss the composition by the percentage of gasoline structure,

components                 percentage composition                       Other possible Components

n-alkanes                                                                                           Octane enhancers

C₅                                3.0                                           N,N^’-dialkylphenylenediamines            

C₆                                11.6                                         methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE)    

C₇                                1.2                                                       t-butyl alcohol (TBA)

C₉                                0.7                                                       ethanol

C₁₀-C₁₃                         0.8                                                       methanol

Total of n-alkanes       17.3                                                     antioxidants

                                                                                    2.6-dialkyl and 2,4,6-trialkylphenols

Branched alkanes

C₄                                2.2                               butylated methyl, ethyl and dimethyl phenols

C₅                                15.1                             triethylene tetramine di(monononylphenolate)

C₆                                8.0                                           metal deactivators

C₇                                1.9                                           N,N^’-disalicylidene-1,2-ethanediamine

C₈                                1.8                                           N,N^’-disalicylidene-propanediamine

C₉                                2.1                               N,N^’-disalicylidene-cyclohexanediamine

C₁₀-C₁₃                         1.0                               disalicylidene-N-methyl-dipropylene-triamine

Total of branched       32.0                                         ignition controllers

                                                                                    tri-O-cresylphophate (TOCp)

Cycloalkanes                                                               icing inhibitors

C₆                                3.0                                           isopropyl alcohol                     

C₇                                1.4                                           detergents/dispersants

C₈                                0.6                                           alkylamine phosphates

Total of cycloalkanes    5.0                                           poly-isobutene amines

                                                                                    long-chain alkyl phenols

olefins                                                                          long chain alcohols

C₆                                1.8                                           long chain carboxylic acids

Total of olefins 1.8                                                          long chain amines

Aromatics                                                                   Corrosion inhibitors

Benezene                     3.2                                           carboxylic acid

Toluene                       4.8                                           phosphoric acid

Xylenes                       6.6                                           sulfonic acid

Ethylbenzene               1.4

C₃-benzenes                 4.2

C₄-benzenes                 7.6

Others                          2.7

Total aromatics            30.5

1.    What is a gasoline structure?

Gasoline is the combination of different higher-order alkanes. So, the gasoline structure is also mixed with different compounds. Mainly C₈H₁₈.

Sometimes the gasoline structure will be 2,2,4-trimethylpentane, so here also 8 carbon atoms are present. So, the general gasoline formula can be C₈H₁₈. We know C-C single bond rotation is possible due to lower barrier energy, so they can rearrange by rotating the bond and forming different structures, they are chain isomers.

2.    How to draw a Gasoline structure?

Gasoline structure is nothing but an octave structure. So first we try to draw the method of octane structure. By drawing the octane structure we can draw the gasoline structure which has the molecular formula C₈H₁₈.

To draw the gasoline structure or any alkanes we should keep some points in our mind.

Step 1– First we draw the number of C atoms, which mentions in the following manner,

1. Meth
2. Eth
3. Prop
4. But
5. Pen
6. Hex
7. hept
8. Oct and so on.

Step 2- Gasoline structure is made by alkane, so here only a single bond is allowed. Now we connect all the c atoms via single bonds only.

Step 3 – Now the valency of carbon atoms is satisfied by adding a respective number of H atoms. If there is any functional group is present then it should be placed at the respective position.

Step 4– now we numbering all C atoms from the left side and kept in mind that the functional group gets the least number or begins the number.

3.    Is gasoline covalent or ionic?

From the gasoline structure, it is evident that there is no ionic part is found in the gasoline structure. Gasoline structure is the skeleton of C and H atoms and both are not ionic in nature. So, the gasoline structure is not ionic.

Gasoline is nothing but a hydrocarbon, which is a special alkane. There are only H and C atoms are present, C and H both do not have ionic potential to polarize the other part or they cannot be ionizable to form an ionic bond, so the gasoline structure is a purely covalent molecule.

4.    Is gasoline a hydrocarbon?

Yes, the gasoline structure is a hydrocarbon. The molecules which form from H and C atoms are only called hydrocarbons. All the organic molecules are hydrocarbons.

Not always hydrocarbon contains only C and H atoms, they should contain other hetero atoms like O, N, S, etc along with H and C. actually, if a skeleton of a molecule is made by C and H then the molecule is called as a hydrocarbon. The gasoline structure is C₈H₁₈ which is an alkane molecule named octane. The skeleton of the gasoline structure is made of only C and H atoms, so gasoline is a hydrocarbon.

5.    Is gasoline acidic or basic?

It says very difficultly for a hydrocarbon to be acidic or basic because there is an option for pH. After all, most all hydrocarbons are insoluble in water. pH is applicable when a molecule is soluble in water and the aqueous solution gives the pH value.

The gasoline structure is made of hydrocarbon it is an alkane. There is no electronegative atom present in the molecule. The electronegativity of H and C atoms are similar so there is no factor present to make the molecule either acidic or basic. So, we cannot predict the acidic or basic nature of gasoline.

6.    Is gasoline made from oil?

If there is no mention of oil, then we can say that gasoline is not made from oil. Because oil is a combination fatty acid and there is no mechanism to form gasoline from the acid molecule. Because gasoline is an alkane.

The gasoline structure is only a hydrocarbon, so there is no chance to produce the alkane from oil. Actually, gasoline is formed from crude oil which is extracted from the earth’s crust, but from normal oil, we cannot synthesize the gasoline structure.

7.    Is gasoline made from crude oil?

Gasoline is made from crude oil and other petroleum liquids. These petroleum or crude oil go through three processes to get gasoline structure they are

• Distillation
• Conversion
• Blending

Distillation – In this method, the crude oil is heated and then separated. This process is done in the crude towers or vacuum towers. Modern separation techniques are involved in piping crude oil through hot blast furnaces. The resulting liquids and vapors are discharged into units called distillation units. All the refineries where gasoline is made from crude oil have atmospheric distillation units. But the more complex refineries used vacuum distillation units.

Gasoline is one of the light fractions which is liquefied in the refinery gases, then vaporized and rises to the top of the tower, where they condensed and again back to liquid.

Conversion – In this method company adds different kinds of chemicals, catalyst and it gets pressure and heat to the oil in the vessels that are called hydro-cookers or fluidized catalytic crackers. In this process, large hydrocarbons will be cracked into small ones.

After distillation, higher-value products such as gasoline can be processed further into lighter. Here fractions are transformed from the distillation units to streams which are intermediate components, that eventually become finishing the products.

There are two processes in conversion one is alkylation and the other is reforming.

In alkylation, gasoline components are made by combining some of the gaseous byproducts which are formed during the cracking process.

The reforming process uses heat and moderate pressure and also the uses of catalysts to turn Naptha, which is a light and relatively low vale fraction, into gasoline components which is high octane value.

Blending – this process is done to get various types of products that are usable as engine fuel. Here octane level, vapor pressure ratings, and other special considerations will be done to determine the gasoline blend.

The higher-order chains from octane C₈H₁₈ to C₁₅ are blended from gasoline. All of them can be vaporized at a temperature that is below the boiling point of water and for this reason, if gasoline is spilled on the ground it evaporates very fast. After that kerosene, diesel, and then lubricant oil is synthesized.

8.    Is gasoline a pure substance?

From the components of gasoline structure, we can say that gasoline is not a pure substance, it is mixed of different kinds of hydrocarbons.

Gasoline is a mixture of n-alkanes like octane is the main substance but it is the composition of n-alkanes, branched alkanes, cycloalkanes, and some part of aromatics compound. So, there are different types of hydrocarbons are present in the gasoline structure, so gasoline is not a pure substance.

When is produced from crude oil, then the raw gasoline is not extracted because the crude oil goes through a different process, and in that process, there is a chance of adding different chemical compounds and catalysts. So, gasoline structure is always a mixed substance.

9.    Is gasoline polar?

The criteria of a molecule being polar are, that a molecule has some resultant dipole-moment, the electronegativity difference between two atoms is more than 0.4D, and the counter atoms have a tendency to polarize other atoms and other atoms should be polarizable.

We know gasoline structure is nothing but hydrocarbons, more specifically alkanes. In the alkane, there are only C and H atoms are present along with a single bond character. Single bond always sp³ hybridized, so the electronegativity of the nucleus is very poor. Again, the electronegativity of C and H is also low and almost equivalent. So, the electronegativity difference is almost zero for C and H atoms.

The gasoline structure is mainly octane. If we consider the structure of octane, we can see that the structure is symmetric in nature, so the dipole moment of octane acts opposite to each other and then cancel out the dipole-moment value. So, the net resultant dipole-moment value for gasoline structure is zero and thus making the molecule non-polar.

Generally, most of all hydrocarbons are non-polar unless there is present any electronegative atoms or functional group like -OH, then there is the possibility of making the molecule polar otherwise not. But here in gasoline structure, no such case is available so the gasoline structure is non-polar.

10. Is gasoline a renewable resource?

If the resource we can use again and again through the recycling process then is called a renewable resource, but if the resource we cannot use after one time then it is called a non-renewable resource. Any kind of fuel is an example of a non-renewable resource.

If we observe the gasoline structure, we can see there is a combination of C and H atoms making a hydrocarbon chain. When gasoline is used as fuel, then its combustion in the air, and during the combustion, C is transferred to carbon dioxide and the process of carbon dioxide to reverse back C is very difficult and it is done in the laboratory. That carbon dioxides are mixed in the open air and cannot get back into their form.

Actually, nonrenewable resources come from the earth’s crust. It is then extracted in solid, liquid, and gaseous form and then convert into suitable products which are related to energy substances e.g. nonrenewable resources including crude oil, natural gas, coal, and uranium. The fossil fuel is extracted into crude oil from the earth’s crust and converted into gasoline. These fossil fuel liquids are also refined for petrochemical products to produce plastics and polyurethane to respective solvents.

The main difference between renewable and non-renewable resources is, that non-renewable resources are limited and can be diminished over time but renewable energy is not.

11. Is gasoline a fossil fuel?

Yes, gasoline is one kind of fossil fuel. Some fossil fuels are refined into some derivates like kerosene and gasoline before burning them.

All the fossil fuels are non-renewable but all the non-renewable resources are not fossil fuels. e.g. crude oil, natural gas, and coal all are considered fossil fuels but uranium is not a fossil fuel uranium is found in the earth’s crust and its amount is also limited. Uranium is a radioactive metal so it cannot form in the same process as fossil fuels.

Crude oil or petroleum is the fossil fuel for gasoline. These fossil fuels can be formed by the sedimentation of rocks, when any organisms have died then they can turn into fossil fuels over billions of years, or the human body or any living being contained phosphate in their body after dying these phosphates turn into hydrocarbon like fossils. Fossil fuels are also hydrocarbons from which we can extract different crude oil or fuels.

12. Is gasoline a natural gas?

Natural gas is composed of methane and ethane whereas in gasoline structure the main skeleton is octane. Both gasoline and natural gas are extracted from the earth’s crust but the compositions are different and both are used as fuel. Both are fossil fuels but their nature and composition are different. So, gasoline is not natural gas.

13. Is gasoline blue?

The color of the gasoline structure is colorless or pale brown or sometimes pink, it depends on the composition of the hydrocarbons. We know gasoline is nothing but a hydrocarbon or alkane, an alkane, there is no such HOMO-LUMO gasp where the energy difference is high or low so the corresponding color will be visible. Mainly conjugated hydrocarbons show different colors due to electronic transaction

The color of kerosene is blue, because of the adding blue dye in it to identify the kerosene from petrol or diesel, but the low-quality kerosene is blue, and high-quality kerosene is white.

14. Is gasoline clear?

Gasoline is not dry, it is a liquid type of appearance so it is a clear substance. Sometimes gasoline will be dried for making different substances.

15. Is gasoline conductive?

The gasoline structure is made from hydrocarbon more specifically octane. Hydrocarbon is a bad conductor of electricity. Because they do not ionize and the mobility of their ions is very poor. So, gasoline is not a conductive agent, it can produce heat by burning itself because it is a good flammable agent.

16. is gasoline corrosive?

Gasoline is not corrosive to metals, even if it is not corrosive to human beings also. But inhaled gasoline vapor causes toxicity.

17. Is gasoline denser than water?

In the gasoline structure, we see there is an octane molecules present and the density of octane is much higher than water as it contains eight C atoms. So, gasoline is denser than water although both are liquids and due to different densities they are non-miserable.

18. Is gasoline elastic or inelastic?

Gasoline is a relatively inelastic product. From the density, it can be said that it is not elastic in nature.

19. Is gasoline heavier than air?

Gasoline structure is made from octane and the density of octane is much heavier than air, so gasoline is heavier than air.

20. Is gasoline heavier than diesel?

Diesel contains approximately 75% of aliphatic higher order hydrocarbons like C10H20–C15H28 and about 25% aromatic hydrocarbons with higher molecular weight like styrene, where gasoline structure is made from octane, so the diesel is heavier than gasoline.

21. Is gasoline hydrophobic?

Gasoline structure is the skeleton of hydrocarbons, and all the hydrocarbons are less affinity to water so, gasoline is hydrophobic in nature.

22. Is gasoline odorless?

There is benzene is also present in the gasoline structure, so it has a distinctive odor due to the presence of benzene as a component.

23. Is gasoline soluble in water?

Hydrocarbon is the main composition of gasoline structure, that’s why it is nonpolar and less soluble or insoluble in polar solvents like water. Also, it has a different density than water so it is insoluble in water and the hydrophobic part is also large.

24. Is gasoline volatile?

In the gasoline structure, there is a mixture of relatively volatile hydrocarbons like cycloalkanes, alkanes, and aromatics, so it is partially volatile in nature.

25. Is gasoline viscous?

Gasoline has a 0.006 centipoise viscosity value, so we can say that the gasoline structure is a lower viscous molecule.

Conclusion

Gasoline is a highly flammable substance and it catches fire easily. It is a non-renewable resource and non-renewable resources are the primary source of energy.

Neutral Oxide Example contains this article. The oxides are neither acidic nor basic known as neutral oxides. In this article let’s talk about more details about neutral oxides example.

Oxides are the binary oxygen compound of any other atom. It may be binary or tertiary or any other depending on the valency of the other atom. Generally, oxides are of two types, one is metallic oxide and the other is non-metallic oxides. Oxides are forming with metal ions are called metal oxides and form with non-metallic species called non-metallic oxides. But there are other categories of oxides that is acidic oxides, basic oxides, neutral oxides, and amphoteric oxides.

Acidic oxides – Oxides that react with water to produce acid are called acidic oxides. Generally, non-metallic oxides are acidic oxides.

e.g. CO₂. H₂0 +CO₂ = H₂CO₃

Basic oxides – Oxides that form based upon reaction with water are called basic oxides. Metallic oxides are an example of basic oxides.

e.g. CaO, CaO + 2H₂O = Ca(OH)₂ + H₂

Amphoteric oxides – Amphoteric oxides are those which can produce acid as well as a base they can react with both acid and base to produce water and salt.

e.g. Al₂O₃ , Al₂O₃ + 6HCl = 2AlCl₃ + 3H₂O

                   Al₂O₃ + 2NaOH + 3H₂O = 2Na[Al(OH)₄]

Neutral oxides – Neutral oxides are neither acidic nor basic or it cannot reacts with acid or base called neutral oxides.

e.g. CO, NO, etc.

In this article, we discuss only neutral oxide examples and detailed facts.

The list of neutral oxide examples are,

• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Nitric Oxide (NO)
• Nitrous Oxide (N₂O)
• Water (H₂O)
• Manganese dioxide (MnO₂)

1.    Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbons monoxide is a neutral oxide example. It is a mono oxide of Carbon. Incomplete combustion of carbon in presence of oxygen produces carbon monoxide. It is very toxic to a living being, it can form bonds with Fe(II) in hemoglobin and produce toxicity.

Apart from that carbon monoxide is a very strong field ligand in organometallic chemistry. In carbon monoxide, there is a partial triple bond character shown, so the electron density of carbon is dragged away from it to the Oxygen site. So, it can behave as a good electrophile. It can form a bond with metal with excess d electrons or metal having a low oxidation state.

During ligation, the HOMO of CO containing a pair of electrons donates electrons density to the suitably d_z² orbital of the metal (sigma donation). In addition, the vacant π^* (LUMO of CO) is involved in π-acceptance from suitably filled d_xz or d_yz of the metal. It is due to sigma donation and π-acceptance that they occur between the metal and C in the metal carbonyl complexes- thereby accounting for their stabilization.

It is due to the Ϭ donation from CO a net positive charge develops at the C center and this favor the π-acceptance. Also, it is due to the π-acceptance that a positive charge density develops at the metal center and this intern favors the Ϭ donation. Thus, the Ϭ donation and π-acceptance re-enforce each other and this phenomenon refers to as the synergistic effect.

2.    Nitric Oxide (NO)

Nitric Oxide is another neutral oxide example. It is a mono oxide of nitrogen. It is less toxic than carbon monoxide. Nitric oxide also can bind with metal with higher d electrons and behaves as a strong field ligand.

In organometallic chemistry, it can behave as a strong filed ligand and can bind with metal having excess d electron or low oxidation state. The binding mode of NO is two types. When it binds with metal in the form of NO⁺ then it can behave as a 3 electrons donor system. NO⁺ is stronger than CO and forms a stronger π bond with the metal center. When it binds as NO⁺ then it binds at linear geometry with metal.

When it binds as NO- then it will be 1 electron donor system and binds at bent geometry, because there will be no double bond formation occur and the single bond can be rotated. Due to two different types of binding modes, it can be called redox non-innocent ligand.

Note- If No behaves as NO⁺ in a complex it is a case of linear nitrosyl since NO⁺ is isoelectronic with CO and CN^– and hence will form a similar type of complex.

When NO behaves as a NO^– it is a Ϭ donor ligand only and hence M-N bond is a single bond. Under this condition, M-N-O will be around 180⁰. Since this process will not be entropically favored. If the nitrosyl is substantially bent then it will be able to assume a larger number of confirmations – thereby stabilizing the structure.

3.    Nitrous Oxide (N₂O)

Nitrous Oxide is also a neutral oxide example. It is used as a laughing gas and has a slightly sweet odor. The geometry of nitrous oxide is linear with an N-N-O bond angle will be 180⁰.

The coordination chemistry of Nitrous oxide is very much limited and it is a very poor ligand and it can bind only some selective metals only. In Nitrous oxide, the N center acts as the donor center cause the whole electron density is present over it.

4.    Water (H₂O)

Water is the best neutral oxide example. Actually, it can react with both acid as well as a base but it can not behaves as acidic or basic because it is a neutral molecule. The lone pairs over O are the reaction center here. The lone pairs can be coordinated with a metal center and it can also behave as a ligand.

In coordination chemistry, water can behave as a weak field ligand. The lone pairs over the O center can be coordinated with the metal center. It is a ϭ donor and π donor ligand. So, it can form a bond with the metal center having lower d electrons.

5.    Manganese dioxide (MnO₂)

Manganese dioxide is another neutral oxide example. The oxidation state of Mn in MnO₂ is +4. So, the oxidation number is lower so here MnO₂ is a neutral oxide. If the oxidation state of Mn is higher in any oxide then it can behave as acidic oxide.

There is no such coordination chemistry about MnO₂. MnO₂ is one neutral oxide of a metal oxide. Generally, metal oxides are basic in nature. It is used in different titration processes. It is used in the titration of KCl to estimate the quantitative value.

Conclusion

From the above discussion of neutral oxide example, we can say that they cannot participate in acid-base reaction but they can be used as ligand also or in titration to estimate another element mainly they are stable oxides so they need not react any other species.

Here in this article, we discuss only the NH3 lewis dot structure, its hybridization, shape, and molecular fact in detail, and the NH3Cl+ lewis dot structure.

In the NH3 lewis dot structure, N formed three sigma bonds with three H atoms. In this structure, N has three bond pairs and one lone pair. The lone pair is also involved in the hybridization and present one of the hybrid orbitals in sp³ hybridization. Though the molecule is sp³ hybridization so it is expected that the bond angle should be 109.5⁰ but here H-N-H bond angle is 107⁰. So here lone pair-bond pair repulsion will be observed.

As it is sp³ hybridized so the shape of the molecule will be tetrahedral but it adopts trigonal pyramidal geometry. All the N-H bond lengths are equal and the value is 100.8 pm. In CFT, NH3 can behave as a good ligand and it can bind with a higher or lower oxidation state of metal.

Some facts about NH3

NH3 is a colorless gas in a physical state and has a distinct pungent smell. Scientist Haber 1^st synthesized ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gas. It is very lighter than air, the density of ammonia is half of normal air. The molar mass of the ammonia molecule is 17.031 g/mol.

The melting point and boiling point of the ammonia molecule are 195.42 K and 239.81 K respectively. The vapor pressure of the gaseous ammonia molecule is 857.3 KPa.

In the Haber process, ammonia can be synthesized in industry.

2N₂ + 3H₂ = 2NH₃

In different fertilizers, ammonia can be used, and it is a good source of nitrogen as well.

How to draw NH3 lewis dot structure?

To draw the lewis dot or lewis structure of a molecule is a very challenging as well as an important task. Because this lewis dot structure of a molecule can give us the proper basic information about the molecules like shape, bond angle, hybridization, valence electrons, etc. Before starting to draw the NH3 lewis dot structure there are a few many rules we have to follow.

Step 1– we should count all valence electrons for all the individual atoms in the molecule and add them together. In the NH3 lewis dot structure, there are Four atoms present, one N and three H atoms. The valence electrons for N are 5 and for three H atoms are 3. So, the total valence electrons are 5+3 = 8.

Step 2 – According to the octet rule, the electrons that will be needed for the NH3 lewis dot structure will be 8 + (3*2) = 14. The available valence electrons are 8. Now the required electrons will be (14-8) = 6 electrons and the minimum number of bonds required in this molecule is 6/2 = 3 bonds.

Step 3– Now we have to select the central atom. N is here central atom based on electronegativity and the size of the atom.

Step 4 – joining all the atoms with the central atom via the required number of single bonds i.e. three. So, N makes three single bonds with three H atoms.

Step 5– Now assigned the lone pairs over the respective atom. Here only N contains lone pairs, so the lone pairs are assigned over N only. Now if necessary, to require multiple bonds then only add multiple bonds but here octet is complete. So, no need to add multiple bonds or add any charge over the molecule.

NH3 lewis structure shape

In the NH3 lewis dot structure, 8 electrons will be involved in the whole bond formation. So, we can say that the electrons count for this molecule is 8, and according to the VSEPR theory, it adopts a tetrahedral shape.

According to the VSEPR (Valence Shell Electrons Pair Repulsion) theory if the electrons count for a molecule is 8 then it adopts tetrahedral geometry. But the condition is that the central atom has no lone pairs. In the NH3 lewis dot structure, central N has lone pairs, so it does not adopt tetrahedral geometry, rather it adopts trigonal pyramidal shape.

N is present at the central position and three H are at the three vertices of this geometry to maintain the structure.

NH3 formal charge

A molecule whether partially charged or not can be calculated by the formal charge. The formal charge is a hypothetical concept by which we can determine the charging property of the molecule.

It is a theoretical concept, so formal charge has a specific formula, and the formula is,

F.C. = N_v – N_l.p. -1/2 N_b.p.

Where N_v is the number of electrons in the valence shell or outermost orbital, N_l.p is the number of electrons in the lone pair, and N_b.p  is the total number of electrons that are involved in the bond formation only.

There is an assumption for calculating formal charge that all the atoms have the same electronegativity.

In the NH3 lewis dot structure, there are N and H two different substituents present so we have to calculate the formal charge for both individually.

The formal charge over the N atom is, 5-2-(6/2) = 0

The formal charge over the H atoms is, 2-0-(2/2) = 0

From the calculation of formal charge, we can conclude that the NH3 molecule is neutral and no charge appears in it.

NH3 lone pairs

After bond formation, if there are pairs of electrons present in the valence shell of an atom are called lone pairs. Lone pairs are valence electrons but do not participate in the bond formation with other subsequent. NH3 has lone pair also.

To find out the lone pairs we have to check the electronic configuration of every atom in the NH3 lewis dot structure.

In NH3 lewis dot structure, H and N are only present so we have to check their electronic configuration.

H has only 1 electron in its s orbital and this is its valence electron. The lone pair needs at least two electrons but H has only 1 electron and that electron is involved in the bond formation. Naturally, H has no lone pair.

Except for H, there is another atom present N. N is the group 15th element in the periodic table. From its electronic configuration, we know that there are five electrons in its valence shell, so in N there may be a possibility of having lone pair. N formed three single bonds with three H atoms and used its three electrons from the valence shell.

So, now N has two electrons in its valence shell and there is no chance for further bond formation and those two electrons exist as lone pair in the NH3 lewis dot structure. So, the lone pair in the NH3 molecule is actually from the N site. These lone pairs are present in the hybrid orbital of the NH3 molecule and for this lone pair, the structure, and shape of the molecule differ.

So, in the NH3 molecule, lone pairs carry a significant role.

NH3 bond angle

The bond angle of a tetrahedral molecule is always 109.50 but in an NH3 molecule, the H-N-H bond angle will be 1070. So, there will be some deviation factor present in the NH3 lewis dot structure.

In the NH3 lewis dot structure, there is lone pair present in the hybrid orbital of N and three H atoms are also present there. Due to the small size of N, there is lone pair-bond pair repulsion that occurs in the NH3 molecule. To minimize the repulsion N decreases the bond angle to 107⁰.

Though it is a tetrahedral molecule its electronic shape is trigonal pyramidal and therefore its bond angle will be 120⁰. But due to lone pair-bond pair repulsion, it adjusted to 107⁰.

NH3 hybridization

N is from group 15^th element whereas H is group 1^st element. So, the energy of the orbital is different and not compatible with bond formation. So, they must undergo hybridization to form a new hybrid orbital of equivalent energy. Here N undergoes sp³ hybridization.

To calculate the hybridization, we use a specific formula, H = 0.5(V+M-C+A), where H= hybridization value of the central atom, V is the number of valence electrons in the central atom, M = monovalent atoms, C=no. of cation, A=no. of the anion.

In the NH3 lewis dot structure, the central atom N has five valence electrons including lone pair, and three H atoms are present in the surrounding.

So, the hybridization of central N in the NH3 molecule is, ½(5+3+0+0) =4 (sp³)

Structure	Hybridization value	State of hybridization of central atom	Bond angle
Linear	2	sp /sd / pd	1800
Planner trigonal	3	sp2	1200
Tetrahedral	4	sd3/ sp3	109.50
Trigonal bipyramidal	5	sp3d/dsp3	900 (axial), 1200(equatorial)
Octahedral	6	sp3d2/ d2sp3	900
Pentagonal bipyramidal	7	sp3d3/d3sp3	900,720

                     From the hybridization chart we can say that if the number of orbitals included in hybridization is equal to four then the central atom will be sp³ hybridized.

From the box diagram of the NH3 molecule, it is evident that the lone pair is also involved in the hybridization. The lone pair is present in the s orbital of the N atom. It is no longer present in the 3s orbital it is present sp³ hybrid orbital so it can be donated easily. That’s why NH3 can behave as a strong lewis base.

Conclusion

In the NH3 lewis dot structure, molecule is tetrahedral by geometrical shape but electron geometry is trigonal pyramidal. The bond angle is 107⁰ instead of 109.5⁰. the molecule is polar due to an asymmetric structure. It can behave as a strong lewis base due to easily donation of lone pairs present in one of a hybrid orbital.

CO2 is the molecular formula of carbon dioxide. In this article, we should discuss CO2+ H2O in detailed facts with some other elements’ reactions.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gaseous molecule. It is an odorless gaseous molecule. But at high concentrations, the smell is sharp and acidic. The density of carbon dioxide is almost 1.5 times of air. The density is 1.98 kg/ m³. The molecular weight is 44.009 g/mol. As it is a gaseous molecule so it has certain vapor pressure having a value of 5.72 MPa at 30⁰ C temperature.

The reactivity of carbon dioxide is a highly reactive molecule as it contains a double bond and that double bond can easily be cleaved by the proper attack of nucleophile-like water (H20). The pka value of carbon dioxide is 6.53 so it is slightly acidic and it reacts with base or nucleophile.

What is CO2 + H2O?

CO2 + H2O both are chemical or molecular formulas. CO2 is the molecular formula of carbon dioxide and H2O is the molecular formula of water.

Carbon dioxide can be rapidly soluble in water by the adsorption process and it ionizes slowly in the aqueous medium. As it is a slightly acidic character so it can form acid in an aqueous solution. Carbon dioxide is not ionized like C⁺ or O₂^–. It gets dissolved in water solution and forms the whole solution acidic and then that acidic solution gets ionized.

This reaction is a simple addition reaction or combination reaction so it does not require any kind of catalyst to forward the whole reaction. The reaction can carry forward by itself only. Water acts as a medium here, where the carbon dioxide can be dissolved and ionized or make any acid or acidic solution.

What happens when CO2 reacts with H2O?

When any slightly acidic molecule gets dissolved in water or reacts with water generally the whole solution turns acidic, because water is a neutral molecule. Depending on the nature of the acidity of that particular molecule, the acidity of the whole solution of the new product is getting determined.

In this CO2 + H20 reaction it is expected that the formation of the acidic compound will occur.

Carbon dioxide is slightly acidic in nature, having a pka value is 6.53. whereas water is the neutral molecule on the pk scale. So, when carbon dioxide gets reacts with water or dissolves in water the whole solution becomes acidic or the formation of an acidic compound occurs. Carbon dioxide cannot ionize in the aqueous medium, it reacts with water, and then ionizes slowly.

Water acts as a solution medium or reaction medium. The reaction mechanism can be thought that the lone pairs of water molecules over O atoms are available and they attack the double between carbon and oxygen in carbon dioxide. Then there is a cleaved of the double bond occurred and the hydroxide group incorporated in between the double bond between carbon and oxygen in carbon dioxide.

Water is an ambident molecule and it can behave as an acid or basic both depending on the nature of the reaction. Water can ionize H⁺ and OH^–. We know that hydroxide is a strong nucleophile and base also.

But here carbon dioxide is less acidic but C=O is the best electrophilic center. So, any kind of nucleophile can attack there. Hydroxide is one of the best nucleophilic centers so it can attack that electrophilic center and the double bond can be cleaved and the OH group incorporated and the remaining H⁺ ion is also added to the other O^– site of carbon dioxide.

What kind of reaction is CO2 + H2O?

CO2 + H2O is a combination type of reaction or it can say simply be an addition reaction.

We cannot say that CO2 + H2O is the typical acid-base reaction because carbon dioxide gets dissolved in water and then form the acidic compound carbonic acid. Water is not a base here it acts as a medium here. But the mechanism can be thought that hydroxide ion attack the electrophilic center of carbon dioxide and breaks the double bond and OH group incorporated and H+ ion coordinated with O- to form H2CO3. So, in another way, this reaction can be named a nucleophilic addition reaction.

How to balance CO2 + H2O?

Every chemical reaction should be balanced properly by its stoichiometric value. Without proper balancing a reaction is not valid, because we cannot understand how many reactions are needed to react how many other reactants, and how many the product we will get.

Let us balance the equation of CO2 + H2O,

CO2 + H2O = H2CO3, we can see that this equation is already balanced. The left-hand side and right-hand side should be equal here.

So, the CO2 + H2O reaction should be balanced by the actual method. There are many steps we should follow to balance a chemical reaction.

Step 1- Every individual molecule or compound is labeled as a, b, c, or x,y, or z depending on the number of molecules present in a reaction.

We use those labeled as the coefficient of every individual molecule with that variable to identify the unidentified coefficient of the molecule.

(A)CO2 + (B) H2O = (C) H2CO3

Step 2- We make some equations for the number system

This equation is created by using suitable numbers of that coefficient for every element present in the reactant and product like carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

C = A = B

H = 2B = 2C

O = 2A + B = 3C

Step 3-  All the variables in the coefficient should be solved in various methods.

Solve all the variables of that coefficient via the Gauss elimination method or determination method.

Using Gauss elimination or substitution

A – B = 0

2B – 2C = 0

2A + B – 3C = 0

Thus, the result shows the lowest integer value of those variables.

A = 1 (CO2)

B = 1 (H2O)

C = 1 (H2CO3)

Step 4 – In the final step substitute the coefficients and verify the result of L.H.S. and R.H.S.

1 CO2 + 1 H20 = 1 H2CO3

Atoms	L.H.S.	R.H.S.
C	1	1
H	2	2
O	3	3

                                   

So, CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 is the balanced equation and L.H.S. is equal to R.H.S.

How to balance CO2+H2O = C6H12O6 + O2 ?

CO2 + H2O = C6H12O6 + O2 reaction is not balanced properly, so we have to balance this equation properly.

So, we just start solving the balance equation by using labeling the individual molecules.

(A)CO2 + (B)H2O = (C) C6H12O6 + (D)O2

Now we created the number equation for the coefficient for every atom.

C = A = 6C

H = 2B = 12C

O = 2A + B = 6C + 2D

Now using the gauss elimination, we get,

A – 6C = 0

2B – 12C = 0

2A + B – 6C – 2D = 0

Now the result which shows the lowest integer,

A = 6 (CO2)

B = 6 (H2O)

C = 1 (C6H12O6)

D = 6 (O2)

In the final step, we substitute the coefficient and verify the result of L.H.S. and R.H.S.

6 CO2 + 6 H2O = C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Atoms                          L.H.S.                          R.H.S.

C                                 6                                  6

H                                 12                                12

O                                 18                                18

So, 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2 is the balanced equation now and L.H.S. is equal to R.H.S.

So, 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2 balanced properly.

How do balance CO2+H2O=C2H2+O2?

CO2 + H2O = C2H2 + O2 reaction is not properly balanced and we have to balance it properly.

By labeling every individual molecule we get,

(A)CO2 + (B)H2O = (C)C2H2 + (D)O2

Now we created the number equation for the coefficient for every atom

C = A = 2C

H = 2B = 2C

O = 2A + B = 2D

Now using the gauss elimination, we get,

A – 2C = 0

2B – 2C = 0

2A + B – 2D = 0

On calculation we get values of,

A = 4 (CO2)

B = 2 (H2O)

C = 2 (C2H2)

D = 5 (O2)

In the final step, we substitute the coefficient and verify the result of L.H.S. and R.H.S.

4 CO2 +2 H2O = 2 C2H2 + 5 O2

Atoms                          L.H.S.                          R.H.S.

C                                 4                                  4

H                                 4                                  4

O                                 10                                10

So, 4CO2 +2H2O = 2C2H2 + 5O2 is the balanced equation now and L.H.S. is equal to R.H.S.

How to balance CO2 + H2O = C2H6 + O2?

CO2 + H2O = C2H6 + O2 reaction is not balanced properly, so we have to balance this equation properly.

So, we just start solving the balance equation by using labeling the individual molecules.

(A)CO2 + (B)H2O = (C)C2H6 + (D)O2

Now we created the number equation for the coefficient for every atom.

C = A = 2C

H = 2B = 2C

O = 2A + B = 2D

Now using the gauss elimination, we get,

A – 2C = 0

2B – 2C = 0

2A + B – 2D = 0

Now the result which shows the lowest integer,

A = 4 (CO2)

B = 6 (H2O)

C = 2 (C2H6)

D = 7 (O2)

In the final step, we substitute the coefficient and verify the result of L.H.S. and R.H.S.

4 CO2 + 6 H2O = 2 C2H6 + 7 O2

Atoms                          L.H.S.                          R.H.S.

C                                 4                                  4

H                                 12                                12

O                                 14                                14

So, 4CO2 + 6H2O = 2C2H6 + 7O2 is the balanced equation now and L.H.S. is equal to R.H.S.

How to balance CH3OH + O2 = CO2 + H2O?

CH3OH + O2 = CO2 + H2O reaction is not balanced properly, so we have to balance this equation properly .

So, we just start solving the balance equation by using labeling the individual molecules.

(A)CH3OH + (B)O2 = (C)CO2 + (D)H2O

Now we created the number equation for the coefficient for every atom.

C = A = C

H = 4A = 2D

O = A + 2B = 2C + D

So, in this reaction numbers of H and O are not balanced so we have to balance the whole equation but the top priority is to balance H and O along with C.

Now using the gauss elimination, we get,

A – C = 0

4A – 2D = 0

A + 2B -2C -D = 0

Now the result which shows the lowest integer,

A = 4 (CH3OH)

B = 6 (O2)

C = 4 (CO2)

D = 8 (H2O)

In the final step, we substitute the coefficient and verify the result of L.H.S. and R.H.S.

4 CH3OH + 6 O2 = 4 CO2 + 8 H2O

Atoms                          L.H.S.                          R.H.S.

C                                 4                                  4

H                                 16                                16                   

O                                 16                                16

So, 4CH3OH + 6O2 = 4CO2 + 8H2O is the balanced equation now and L.H.S. is equal to R.H.S.

Conclusion

The reaction CO2 + H2O is an example of an addition reaction or we can say that in a particular nucleophilic addition reaction. Hydroxide ion from water molecule acts as nucleophile here. To balance the CO2 + H2O reaction we need to know how many reluctant will react to produce how many products and according to that stoichiometric calculation, the weight of the reactants will be measured. Even with an unknown reaction, we can know how many reactants will be required so balancing an equation is very important.