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Exocytosis is the transport of larger molecules from the cytosol to the extracellular fluid by the expenditure of purinenergy in the form of ATP, so it’s active transport. Bulky materials are unable to diffuse passively through the cellular membrane due to their hydrophobicity. This process takes place through porosomes present in the plasma membrane. Exocytosis is mainly to excrete the waste products from the cell to the extracellular space. Exocytosis examples are discussed below:
Transport of glucagon from the pancreas to the liver. It is processed there to facilitate absorption into the bloodstream.
Transport of protein-filled vesicles from T cells to microbe-contaminated cells.
Removal of carbon dioxide and water, which are waste products generated by aerobic respiration.
Exocytosis facilitates the secretion of enzymes, antibodies, and peptide hormones from multiple cells.
Release of acetocholamine and transportation from the synaptic cleft.
Macrophages are just like white blood cells and after the engulfing of pathogens, some unwanted residues are left inside the cell. These waste products can be eliminated through the process of exocytosis
Transportation of glucagon from the pancreas to the liver
Secretion of glucagon from α-cells of Islets of Langerhans regulates the release of glucose. The pancreas acts as both the exocrine and endocrine glands, releasing hormones like insulin, glucagon and somatostatin. Although these secretions are getting absorbed by cells and their target site receptors via the process of exocytosis.
Exocytosis through the plasma membrane Image credit: Wikimedia commons
Transport of protein-filled vesicles from T cells to microbe-contaminated cells
In a viral septicity, after maturation, assembly, release and spread of virions from one cell to another, cells form extracellular vesicles to translocate these individuals from the inner region to extracellular space by adhering these vesicles to the plasma membrane and throw out the enveloped virions to an infected pathogen. And this process is taken place by exocytosis.
Exocytosis is involved in the formation of the cell wall in plants
In plants, secretory vesicles are ready to incorporate into the cell membrane and release their products outside the cell. Some polysaccharide precursors covered in exocytotic vesicles get deposited on the bi-layer membrane and result in increment girth and elongation of the cell. Lignin, which is harder than cellulose and strengthens wood tissue, is excreted by the woody plant via exocytosis and accumulates in the central lamella and cell wall.
Exocytosis is involved in the secretion of nectar from the gynoecium of the flowers to facilitate pollination. In many plants, oils are emitted through fragrant flowers, herbs, and spices. They can be purposely used for pollination and also as their defence mechanism like in mustard plant, secretory oil causes irritation in few animals thus preventing many herbivores from eating them.
Bacteria perform vascular exocytosis
Some prokaryotic eubacteria pinched off their periplasms as bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) and transmit microbial biochemical signals to eukaryotic host cells or other nearby microorganisms. Invasion of the protozoan pathogen Trypanosoma cruzi or adenovirus into host cells involves the use of lysosomal exocytosis.
Removal of carbon dioxide and water, which are waste products generated by aerobic respiration
In this example, during cellular respiration, the exchange of gases occurs through alveoli via haem proteins containing two isozymes termed Haem oxygenase-1 and Haem oxygenase2. They are the main hero of aerobic respiration whose activity depends upon the pressure gradient of different gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrous oxide. And after the exchange of gases, cells are willing to excrete out some waste products and other by-products of the chemical reaction through the process of exocytosis. Binding affinity depends upon the pressure-concentration gradient.
Release of neurotransmitters and their transportation from the synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitters are transmitted by exocytosis. They are the chemical dialogues carried from nerve to nerve by synaptic vesicles. Synaptic vesicles are membrane sacs formed by endocytosis of the plasma membrane at presynaptic nerve endings. Vesicles filled with neurotransmitters then move towards the active zone of the plasma membrane. The influx of calcium ions creates action potentials across the membrane, allowing synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and deliver its contents to the extracellular space of neurons through exocytosis.
Secretion of neurotransmitters by exocytosis Image credit: Wikipedia
Exocytosis facilitates the secretion of enzymes, antibodies, and peptide hormones from multiple cells
Few cells produce antibodies and enzymes while some glands are there in the biological system for hormone production and these hormones should reach their target sites, they form the exocytotic vesicles to carry these materials from the source to sink via the cell membrane through exocytosis.
Regulation of receptors on cell membranes
Exocytosis plays an important role in the regulation of T cell receptor (TCR) signalling. The transport matrix is involved in transporting TCRs and downstream signalling molecules to the cell surface. The formation of T-cell signalling molecules is initiated by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and facilitated by the exocytotic vesicles formed over the plasma membrane to transport the key molecules to the intracellular immunoreceptor consensus sites.
The formation of a structured interface among a T-cell and an antigen-presenting cell (APC), is termed the immunological synapse. Continuous delivery of TCRs to the immunological synapse is accompanied by continuous signalling T cell activation. As lytic granules are formed for transporting the signalling molecules, this is the type of lysosome-mediated exocytosis.
Release of digestive enzymes by the pancreas
Pancrease also releases some digestive enzymes through exocytosis as the exocytotic vesicle from where these enzymes are packed inside these vesicles and gets transported towards the plasma membrane and fuses up with integral proteins to exit the cell. Later, these vesicles move to the receptor site for further action and functioning. Through these chemical signals, cells can communicate with each other to maintain cells.
Conclusion
In my conclusion, exocytosis is the process to expel the cargo material from the inner side to the outer region of the cell. It also helps in the transportation of neurotransmitters, hormones, enzymes and other large molecules like protein bags, and polysaccharides from their source to their respective receptors.
Filamentous bacteria are none other than the members of actinomycetes. They are unicellular organisms forming a branched network of filaments. They are anaerobic, gram-positive, colony forming bacteria. They are highly rich in G+C content.
Focus on filamentous bacteria examples:
Actinomyces meyeri
Actinomyces israelii
Actinomyces gerencseriae
Actinomyces naeslundii
Actinomyces viscosus,
Actinomyces odontolyticus
Actinomyces bovis
Streptomyces coelicolor
Streptomyces scabies
Streptomyces venezuelae
Nocardia brasiliensis
Nocardia asteroides
Dermatophilus congolensis
Crenothrix polyspora
Methylococcus capsulatus
Methylocaldum szegediense
Microthrix parvicella
Propionibacterium propionicus
Micromonospora
Frankia
Corynebacterium
Mycobacterium
Rhodococcus
Actinomyces meyeri
As they are unicellular filamentous bacteria that belong to the class actinomycetes. As per the reports, some members belonging to the Actinomyces genus are responsible to cause chronic inflammation in the lungs of human beings, called “actinomycosis“.
Actinomyces israelii
They are anaerobic, colonial, haematoxiphilic, filamentous gram+ve bacteria. They also cause the same pulmonary inflammation as they are commensal to the mouth and crypts of tonsils. They are also found in gastrointestinal tracts.
Actinomyces naeslundii
They are non-spore forming, facultative anaerobes which is a prominent oral bacteria causing emphyma in humans. They also cause an inflammatory problem in the endocardial layer of the heart. They can easily grow at a temperature of 15 ° C to 40 ° C, with an optimum growth temperature of 37 °C
They are filamentous anaerobic pathogen of humans. They are acidogenic bacteria causing dental caries. Most commonly, it causes slow-growing, locally invasive, and destructive tissue damage in the oral neck, chest, abdomen, and pelvis region of human beings.
Actinomyces odontolyticus
This species of actinomyces is linked with cervicothoracic illness in humans. It was first isolated by Batty in 1958 in a patient with root lesions in the oral cavity. They are generally found in Asia and North America.
Actinomyces bovis
It is the causative agent of the lumpy jaw in ruminants. It is a zoonotic organism that causes granulomas, abscesses, skin lesions, and bronchopneumonia in humans. Only when there is the destruction of the epithelial or mucosal surface it can penetrate deeper tissues of the cheeks.
Figure showing the “Lumpy jaw in bovines” Image credit: Flickr
Actinomyces gerencseriae
They are non-motile, gram positive bacilli and live in soil-biome and also in biological systems. They cause pathogenicity in humans as well as in cattle.
Streptomyces coelicolor
It is also an example of unicellular, spore-forming filamentous bacteria belonging to the phylum actinomycetes. Member of Streptomyces is responsible for much of the decomposition of organic matter in the soil and the “earthy” odour of the soil.
They become the research point of interest as they are “adaptable to environmental stress“. They emit blue/green pigments under alkaline conditions and red pigments under acidic conditions.
Streptomyces scabies
They are the main causal agent of potato scab in common potato crops. It passes through lenticels, wounds, and stomata and penetrates the tissue directly in young tubers. This can be prevented by avoiding the use of materials that add alkalinity to the soil, such as wood ash, fresh fertilizers and lime.
Streptomyces venezuelae
It is one of the gram-positive, unicellular, filamentous bacteria examples. It is mostly known for antibiotic production like chloramphenicol. The spores are somehow different from other members as they are rich in arginine and leucine contents.
Nocardia brasiliensis
They are aerobic, unicellular filamentous bacilli, ubiquitous in the environment but mainly found in soil. They can easily grow in temperature ranges between 25°C to 45°C. They are responsible to cause a disorder named “Nocardiosis” which infects the lungs, liver and central nervous system of humans
Nocardia asteroids
They are also filamentous bacteria examples. They are mostly aerobic, spore-forming, unicellular organisms. They are mostly involved in the septicity of bones and spinal cord region with mild muscular pain and are also found in respiratory tracts of the human population.
Dermatophilus congolensis
It is a gram-positive, non–acid-fast, facultative anaerobic saprophyte. As they are cosmopolitan so can be isolated from soil or water regions. They are mostly seen during heavy and long rainfall. They can cause pathogenicity in Rabbits. They are also a contagious agent for chronic bacterial skin problems known as Dermatophilosis.
Crenothrix polyspora
They are prokaryotic, gram-negative bacteria found in stagnant water containing a low concentration of Fe2+ and methane. They are responsible for the earthy smell in drinking water from ground source water bodies as they possessterpenoid geosmin, trans-1,10-dimethyl-trans-9-decalol and
2-methylisoborneol.
Methylococcus capsulatus
They are methylotrophic, gram-negative aerobes. They can metabolise the methane gas as their source of energy and lowers the level of methane in the atmosphere. With this feature, they became the participating member of the conservation of the biosphere.
Methylocaldum szegediense
These are unicellular, filamentous, thermophilic methanotrophs. They are obligate anaerobes and are extremely hydrophobic due to the presence of mycolic acids on their cell walls.
Microthrix parvicella
They are prokaryotic, unicellular marine eubacteria. They are gram-positive, hydrophobic and also activated-sludge bacteria as they are the major participant in the filtration of water-sludge systems and water purification.
Propionibacterium propionicus
They are pleomorphic, anaerobic, gram-positive, human infecting bacteria. They produce some chemicals in trace amounts like carboxylic acids: propionic acid, acetic acid, formic acid, and succinic acid. They are also capable of nitrogen fixation.
The cell wall is made up of muramic acid, N-acetylglucosamine, glutamic acid, glycine, and L-diaminopimelic acid.
They are gram-positive, branched, spore-forming aerobes. They are isolated from the root nodules of the Pisum sativum. It contains carotenoid mycelial pigments showing yellow, orange, red, purple, brown, or black colonies. They possess anticancer quinones, annsamycins, antimicrobial peptides, aminoglycosides and gentamycin complexes.
Frankia
They are unicellular, aerobic, gram-positive, filamentous, free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The cell wall is made up of meso diaminopimelic acid, glutamic acid, alanine, muramic acid, and glucosamine and is devoid of mycolic acid in composition.
Nitrogen fixation depends upon the availability of Ca2 + ions in host cells. They can convert atmospheric nitrogen into a biologically consumable form.
Frankia forming the root nodules in higher plants Image credit: Wikimedia commons
Oscillatoria
It is a prokaryotic, filamentous, fresh-water, motile cyanobacteria. The alkaloid neurotoxin antxa is a potent post-synaptic depolarizing neuromuscular inhibitor produced by the organism. Reproduction is mainly through binary fission or fragmentation.
Members of this genus are photosynthetic, unbranched, colonial, filamentous bacteria. They possess a specific structure for nitrogen fixation” Heterocysts” into filaments. They reproduce through fragmentation and akinete formation.
Corynebacterium
Species of this genera are mostly unicellular, prokaryotic, filamentous, a club-shaped bacterium is known for pneumonic inflammation in human beings. They live in mice, rats, and voles as commensal organisms. A species Corynebacterium diphtheria is the main causal agent of diphtheria.
They are gram-positive, catalase positive, non-motile, non-spore forming rod-shaped aerobes. They are mostly saprophytic to human beings. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is responsible for the ailment in the throat and lungs i.e. Tuberculosis.
It is a gram-positive encapsulated intracellular, soil-borne bacillus. They can metabolise aromatic compounds like toluene, naphthalene etc. They are potential members of the bioremediation of pollutants.
They are used in sewage treatment plants as they can form flocculation and fermentation by releasing gases. They can cause illness in the bone and joints.
Conclusion
This article is mainly focused on the examples of filamentous bacteria in which some are methane producing helps in flocculation formation in sewage treatment and to improve water quality. Few are the major nitrogen fixer and contribute to conservation in the biosphere while some are pathogenic to the biological systems like humans and cattle.
Facilitated diffusion is the process of movement of ionsfrom higher concentration to their lower concentration with the help of carrier proteins via a membrane. In a biological system, the movement of simpler molecules can occur through a selectively permeable membrane. It can transports glucose, amino acids and other substances. Let’s focus on the facilitated diffusion example:
Proteins are transporting the elements from either side of the plasma membrane. These transport proteins are of three types depending upon what type of molecule they carried. Carrier proteins, gated-channel proteins and channel proteins.
Transport of molecules through channel proteins Image credit: Wikimedia commons
Transport of molecules through carrier proteins Image credit: Wikimedia commons
Glucose transport
As it is a very common carbs and a great source of energy required for proper metabolism in a living system. It should be transported and distributed in the proper amount to all the cells as per their need. The glucose transporters are present in the intracellular pool of the cellular membrane which facilitates the uptake of glucose molecules by the cells.
GLUTs are present mainly in four regions like brain cells, intestinal walls, adipose tissues, and skeletal and cardiac muscles where SGLTs are supporter proteins and transport the molecules in the same directions.
Transportation of glucose is facilitated by the uptake of two molecules of Na+ ions Image credit: Wikimedia commons
Say for example,
In the intestinal region, two barriers are present for the transportation i.e. Epithelial barrier and the Baso-lateral membrane. Sodium-coupled receptors are present over the apical membrane, nearby sodium ions bind up with these receptors which also facilitates the entry of glucose molecules inside the membrane. Then the low concentration of potassium ions inside the basolateral region results in the efflux of Na+ ions inside the cells through Na+-K+ ATPase. Consequently, glucose molecules are also absorbed into the systemic circulation.
Amino acid transport
Amino acid gets transported by channel proteins. They are present on the plasma membrane of the blood-brain barrier. They bind up with the receptors/channels and move across the membrane i.e. from extracellular fluid to intracellular fluid and vice-versa. Some of the amino acids are more specific to gated-channel proteins and facilitated the movement in both directions.
Movement of small amino acids through carrier proteins Image credit: Wikimedia commons
They have two different sodium-independent transporter systems :L and y+ transporter systems.
While few polypeptide chains are bulky in shape that’s why transported through the facilitative transporters and are Na+-K+ ATPase-dependent. They work according to the concentration gradient.
Water transport
Water can be easily transported by the process of simple diffusion. But sometimes, they also need selective-carrier proteins to pass through this semi-permeable membrane and are dependent upon the electrochemical potential. So, this aquatransporter are known as aquaporins embedded in the phospholipid bilayer.
Transportation of water molecules through water channels Image credit: Wikimedia commons
Aquaporins are a family of small endogenous membrane proteins (24-30 kDa) found in mammalian cells and can effectively increase the overall rate of water movement across cell membranes. They have 10 isoforms from AQP1 to AQP10. Although they also provide a gateway for small solutes like glycerol, urea, CO2etc and are known as aqua glyceroporins.
Gas transport
Necessary gases are transported through the integral carrier proteins via a semi-permeable membrane. As CO2, O2, NH3 and other gases can be transported by simple diffusion but some of the cellular membranes are impermeable for absorption so they need an efficient carrier protein for entry and exit of the gaseous molecules.
Gaseous exchange in higher organisms is an important facilitated diffusion example. In blood, the carrier protein is haemoglobin, while in muscle, the carrier protein is myoglobin. This occurs due to the pressure differences through both sides of the membrane.
In unfavourable conditions, gases like CO2 are also carried by aquaporins. Initially, a non-haemoglobin carrier protein is used to carry these gases and was named Rhesus proteins (Rh proteins) but as the time passes, after a lot of studies, it is named aquaporins. Different AQPs ligate with different gases.
Ion transport
Ions are also diffusing across the membrane as per the balancing of membrane potential. Passive transport of ions along the electrochemical gradient is primarily mediated by ion channels and exhibits selective ion permeability, so the ion gradient creates a potential difference (membrane voltage) throughout the cell membrane.
The resting membrane potential of most cells is primarily determined by the equilibrium K+ potential, which is negative for extracellular fluid. Ions are polar molecules and cannot move across similarly charged membranes.
This facilitated diffusion is a passive process but ions can be actively transported too at the expenditure of energy, involving secondary ion pumps also known as active transporters. These ion transporters are selective for K+, Na+, Ca2+, H+, Cl−, cations or anions. Ex- ABC transporter.
Ion transporters are having three properties-
Ions pass via channels are extraordinarily rapid. More than one million can move from these open channels.
These channels are highly specific for a particular size of ions, as the size of ions is directly proportional to the size of integral proteins.
Most ion channels are not permanently open as they play a vital role in the transmission and regulation of electric impulses across the membrane.
The diagram shows the ion transport through ion channels Image credit: Wikimedia commons
Higher levels of ion selectivity are indicated by voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels. Na+ channels are more than 10 times more permeable to Na+ than K+, and K+ channels are more than 1000 times more permeable to K+ than Na+. Voltage-gated channels are mediated with the aid of using one of the transmembrane α-helices containing numerous charged amino acids.
Membrane depolarization induces the extracellular transfer of these positive charges, shifting the location of this transmembrane segment and opening channels. The rapid inactivation of Na+ and K+ channels during action potential propagation is then mediated by the cytoplasmic portion of the polypeptide chain that binds to the cytoplasmic portion of the channels.
Ion transporters are of three types through which ions gets in the intracellular space as per the directions provided by them.
1. Symporter
2. Antiporter
3. Uniporter
Types of ion channels represents the movement of cations and anions as the way directed by them Image credit: Wikimedia commons
Conclusion
I have concluded my words with that facilitated diffusion is the passive transport of the larger molecules with the help of surface protein which cannot be transported by simple diffusion. Some glucose molecules, polypeptide chains and ions are carried by this process across the membrane without the expenditure of ATP molecules.
Bioindicators are the organisms used to biomonitoring and assess Earth’s living system changes by anthropogenic activities. It may be microbial biomass, fungi, actinomycetes, lichens, and the population of earthworms, nematodes, termites, and ants.
Let us see some bioindicator examples:
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
Euglena gracilaris
Chlorella vulgaris
Vogesella indigofera
Hyloconium splendens
Paramoecium Aurelia
Lobaria pulmonaria
Wolfia globosa
Cyclops
Benthos/Macroinvertebrate
Fungi
Frog and Toads
Earthworm
Nematodes
Salmon
Ants
Pteridophyta
Bioindicators are of four types depending upon the indication of behavioural and functional changes in their surroundings by their activity, growth and behaviour.
Pollution bioindicators
Ecological bioindicators
Biodiversity bioindicator
Environmental bioindicator
Representative diagram of the distribution of bioindicators according to their behavioural changes.
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
This is prokaryotic, unicellular green algae. They show aquatic contamination of heavy metals. As they offer the metal toxicity of cadmium and copper. They cannot grow above 0.3µM. They inhibit the function of nitrate reductase (NR), nitrite reductase (NiR) and glutamate synthase required for the cycling of nitrate and sulphate ions.
It is strictly aerobic, non-pathogenic, gram-negative, bioluminescent bacteria found in fresh water. As they release a blue pigment which shows the toxic level of some specific metallic ions.
Pigmentation is blocked due to the toxicity of hexavalent chromium ions, as it gets reduced by almost 50%. The Cr6 + threshold concentration of inhibition of pigment production was 200-300 μg ml-1.
Euglena gracilaris
They show heavy metal contamination in water as they revealed the genotoxic effect of organic pollutants in Taihu lake of China,2008. They affect the activities of antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase and peroxidase by bond breakage in DNA and manipulating the synthesis of proteins.
It is also one of the bioindicator examples most intensively studied microalgae used for waste treatment. They start releasing stress proteins encounters with contamination of two pesticides in water bodies i.e. 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and Atrazine.
They show the toxicity of metal pollutants in the terrestrial ecosystem. As they are bryophytes and have no true root system for absorption of nutrients so they depend on the composition of elements present in the air.
They show some physiological changes above a few heavy metals like lead, manganese, copper, zinc, nickel etc. Unit varies for different metals.
Paramoecium aurelia
They show a great effect on respiratory metabolism and oxidative stress by cellular disruption and apoptosis by increasing the level of benzene and organic-phosphorous compounds in an aquatic ecosystem.
As this is the lichen present in tree trunks and access the air pollutant in the surrounding. They are very sensitive to sulphur dioxide and sulphur-containing organic compounds. They are also known as lung-lichen as they cannot live in heavy pollutants.
This is the smallest angiospermic plant. They show the phytotoxicity of cadmium and chromium ions. This decreases biomass productivity and chlorophyll content.
Cyclops
These organisms are indicating water quality or eutrophication in a river basin. They show some behavioural changes due to the accumulation of cadmium in their cells, as they react towards the excess amount of cadmium in water.
Benthos
Macroinvertebrates of the benthic zone include some crustaceans, Crayfish, a few echinoderms and molluscs. The heavy metals Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn affect the growth and life cycle of members of the benthic zone.
Ecto-mycorrhizae are the highly sensitive fungal bioindicators of air pollution. They show the heavy metal toxicity present in soil and also influence the soil biota. Heavy metals are nickel, cadmium, manganese is sometimes responsible for phytotoxicity.
Frogs and Toads
They are most sensitive to some pollutants like fungicides, herbicides, and pesticides. As they show reactivity against nitrate, sulphate, calcium, zinc etc. These may alter the function of some enzymes like cholinesterases, glutathione-S-transferases and their respective proteins.
Earthworms
This organism acts as an ecological indicator as it helps to recognise the metal pollution monitoring in the soil ecosystem. The number of individuals present resembles the soil health and accumulation of chemicals in a particular area. The concentration of Zn, Fe, Pb and Mn affects the growth of earthworms.
They indicate the heavy metal toxication in soil ecology. Abundance in soil shows the good quality of the soil. Increased chromium concentration in sediments was found to increase the prevalence of four nematode species. They get their nutrient from the detrimental organism.
Salmon
Chinook salmon is an aquatic species that shows the contamination of water or eutrophication due to the accumulation of chemicals in their cells and indicates by some behavioural changes. Fishes also act as a bioindicator for aquatic pollution.
Ants
They are everywhere, great variety of insects that dominate many ecosystems with numbers and biomass. Reflecting the loss of diversity, changes in species composition, and changes in interspecific and intraspecific interactions. They are involved in soil decomposition, nutrient cycling, seed dispersal etc.
Pteridophytes are a positive indicator of forest integrity because they show a typical plant response to the harmful environmental conditions of the city. They reflect climate change and the global biodiversity crisis are often overlooked due to the relatively small size and lack of vibrant colours of these species.
Conclusion
In this article, we have discussed the bioindicator from different classes of organisms like some algae, plants, zooplankton, phytoplankton and fishes etc. The purpose of their existence is to indicate the contamination and pollution in the different ecosystems and contribute to the conservation of respective biota.
Archaebacteria are the type of unicellular, autotrophic prokaryotes which can live in extreme conditions. These are the group of bacteria that belongs to extreme circumstances as they can grow in high temperature, low temperature with snow, high salinity, and highly acidic while some are also methane-producing and utilizing. Archaea examples are discussed below.
Thermofilum pendens
Thermoproteus tenax
Thermoproteus neutrophillus
Thermoproteus uzoniensis
Vulcanisaeta distributa
Vulcanisaeta moutnovskia
Metallosphaera cuprina
Metallosphaera sedula
Staphylothermus hellenicus
Staphylothermus marinus
Thermosphaera aggregans
Sulfolobus acidocaldarius
Sulfolobus islandicus
Desulfurococcus kamchatkensis
Hyperthermus butylicus
Thermus aqaticus
Archaeoglobus fulgidus
Archaeoglobus veneficus
Archaeoglobus profundus
Ferroglobus placidus
Halalkalicoccus jeotgali
halobacterium salinarum
Haloferax volcanii
Natrialba asiatica
Methanobacterium bryantii
Methanococcus formicum
Methanobrevibacter ruminantium
Methanobrevibacter smithii
Methanofollis liminatans
Methanogenium cariaci
Methanogenium organophilum
Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus
Methanothermobacter thermoflexus
Methanomicrobium mobile
The members of archea set an example for living life in extreme conditions. Mostly they are anaerobic. They possess unique cell membrane composition as they do not possess peptidoglycan as their cell wall building material. They also have different genetic composition matches with the eukaryotic nucleus.
Distribution Of Kingdom Archaea
Are you also interested in the unique characteristics of Archaebacteria?
They have a specific genomic structure at the level of 16s ribosomal RNA nucleotides. This gives them an inbuilt resistance to some antibiotics like streptomycin & kanamycin.
They are obligate anaerobes as they follow different mechanisms for cell respiration. Like methanogens, they are the only living organism capable to perform methanogenesis i.e. production of methane gas during cellular respiration.
Domain archea:
All cells may be prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Procaryotes are the primitive, unicellular members of the kingdom Monera from Whitaker’s five kingdom classification, containing free genetic material in the cytosol while eucaryotes are having true nucleus and DNA is enclosed in a typical nuclear membrane, and possess other internal membranes. Approx 400 species have been reported in this domain to date.
Helpful archaea:
The first microorganism to thrive on earth was a thermoacidophile due to the environmental condition of the earth. Heat-loving, thermotolerant microorganism have their economic importance in multiple fields of science due to their ability to produce thermostable enzymes which can be used for biotechnological applications. It is generally associated with protein thermostability. Thus hyperthermophiles are best suited for this purpose as compared to mesophiles.
Why these are used?
Because they can easily break the hydrogen bonds and di-sulphide bridges with any conformational distortion in structure.
It helps in increasing the diffusion coefficient and solubility of the compounds. It decreases the viscosity of the reaction medium.
One example of this is Thermus aquaticus– which now has been commercially utilised. The enzyme Taq polymerase was used as a thermostable enzyme in the Polymerase chain reaction for the amplification of DNA.
Image credit: NCBI National Centre For Biotechnology Information
Crenarchaeota
Thermoacidophiles or thermophiles, are extremely heat-tolerant and inhabit near sulphur hot springs and moist regions. These organisms cannot live below the temperature of 1310 C. They possess a special protein in their cell wall as they can even resist 2300 F.
Thermophiles:
They are also known as thermoacidophiles because they can live at very high temperatures and can bear high acidic environments. They normally propagate at temperatures above 45 °C. They inhabit deep-sea hydrothermal vents, terrestrial hot springs, and other extreme geographical regions. Thermophilic archaea examples are:
Thermofilum pendens
Thermoproteus tenax
Thermoproteus neutrophillus
Thermoproteus uzoniensis
Vulcanisaeta distributa
Vulcanisaeta moutnovskia
Metallosphaera cuprina
Metallosphaera sedula
Staphylothermus hellenicus
Staphylothermus marinus
Thermosphaera aggregans
Sulfolobus acidocaldarius
Sulfolobus islandicus
Desulfurococcus kamchatkensis
Hyperthermus butylicus
Thermus aqaticus
Thermofilum pendens
This is a thermophilic, moderately acidic bacterium isolated from the Solfataric hot springs in Iceland. Like many other archaea, it seems to breathe sulfur and use peptides for energy. It has a very long thread-like structure up to 100 mm.
T. pendens dislikes ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate-carboxylase, AMP-phosphorylase, and ribose-1,5-bisphosphate-isomerase.
Thermoproteus tenax
They are hydrogen-sulfur autotrophs and can grow at temperatures up to 95 ° C. Thermoproteus has a unique membrane lipid that is an ether-bonded glycerol derivative of a branched lipid with 20 or 40 carbon atoms.
The cells are rod-shaped, up to 4 microns in diameter and up to 100 microns in length, and proliferate by forming branches at the ends of the cells and growing into individual cells.
Thermoproteus neutrophillus
These archaea can grow with elemental sulfur as terminal electron acceptors of energy metabolism. Sulfur-reducing microorganisms and methanogens have one thing in common. That is, both are alive at the expense of reduced S-S bonds.
The reduction of elemental sulfur is one of the most common properties of thermophilic and hyperthermophilic bacteria. Above pH 5, sulfide anions (HS) are nucleophiles that react with the elemental sulfur ring (S8) to form polysulfides (S42– and S52–). Above pH 7 and 75 ° C, elemental sulfur becomes imbalanced with thiosulfates and sulfides.
Thermoproteus uzoniensis
It is a hyperthermophilic rod-shaped archaeon found in hot springs and soil samples of Uzon Caldera. The cells are rods 1-20 μm long and 0.3-0.4 μm wide and may branch or have spherical protrusions at both ends. The cells do not move and lack flagella. Fermentation products are acetic acid, isobutyric acid and isovaleric acid.
Vulcanisaeta distributa
It is characterized by the worldwide distribution of hot springs and acidic hot springs. It is isolated from the hot springs of Owakiya, Kanagawa Prefecture. Acidic conditions (pH 3.5-5.6) are required for growth.
They are resistant to chloramphenicol, kanamycin, oleandomycin, streptomycin, and vancomycin but sensitive to erythromycin, novobiocin, and rifampicin.
Vulcanisaeta moutnovskia
This grows in the absence of archaeal cell extract in the medium. It is an anaerobic, heterotrophic, hyperthermophilic archaea that grow optimally at 85-90 ° C and pH 4.0-4.5.
This microorganism uses maltose, starch, malate, yeast extract, peptone, beef extract, casamino acid, and gelatin as carbon sources. It is a metabolically versatile archaeon that can ferment proteinaceous substrates and some sugars.
Metallosphaera cuprina
Originally isolated from the sulfur spring. It plays an important role in mobilizing metal sulfide deposits in the natural bioleaching environment. Metallosphaera is gaining interest in the biomine industry due to its ability to oxidize reduced inorganic sulfur compounds (RISCs) under high-temperature conditions.
Metallosphaera sedula
Thermophilic and rock autotrophic archaea, such as Metallosphaera sedula, occupy an acidic, metal-rich environment and are used in biomining processes. Their genome contains genes associated with autotrophic carbon fixation, metal resistance, and adhesion. Originally from the volcanic region of Italy.
It is used to decrease coal pyrite due to its ability to oxidize pyrite, known as depyritization. That is an obligate aerobe that grows best at 75 °C and pH 2.0
Staphylothermus hellenicus
It is a hyperthermophilic, heterotrophic organism that requires sulfur to grow. At low nutrient levels, it forms grape-like clusters up to 0.5-1.0 mm in diameter and 100 clusters high. It is isolated from a hydrothermal vent off the bay of Paleocoli on the island of Milos, Greece. Large cluster cells with diameters up to 15 μm are found at high vegetative levels.
Staphylothermus marinus
It Is a thermophile with a thermostable extreme enzyme that works especially at high temperatures. They are mostly sulfur-dependent and highly marine thermophiles. These archeons need sulfur to grow but can produce hydrogen if sulfur is limited. These extreme enzymes are used to convert sulfur to hydrogen sulfide. After that, hydrogen sulfide is released as waste.
Thermosphaera aggregans
It is hyperthermophilic, heterotrophic, strictly anaerobic and fermentative. They are firstly identified in the obsidian pool. They are coccoid in shape with multiple flagella.
Thermosphaera aggregans Image credit: Microbe wiki
Sulfolobus acidocaldarius
Sulfolobus excels in its ability to thrive at both high and low pH. The natural habitat of these organisms is the Solfatterfield around the world, including the United States, Russia, Japan, New Zealand and Iceland. They can grow optimally at 80 ° C and pH 2 with a terrestrial solfataric source.
Sulfolobus islandicus
The optimum temperature for proper growth varies between 75-80 C and ph ranges from 2.5-to 3.5. They can mostly be grown in sulphur-rich hot springs. As they are facultative autotrophs, can oxidize sulfur to sulfate while fixing carbon from carbon dioxide.
Desulfurococcus kamchatkensis
They are obligately anaerobic, hyperthermophilic, organotrophic archaeon isolated from a hot spring of Uzon Caldera. They require an optimum temperature range of 650-850 C with pH ranges between 5-7.
In the presence of sulfur as an electron acceptor, it undergoes sulfur respiration to produce H2S and CO2, but in the absence of sulfur, it undergoes peptide oxidation combined with hydrogen production to regenerate electron carriers.
Hyperthermus butylicus
This thermophilic archaeon uses H2S formation only as an assimilatory energy source. Its main form of energy is fermentation. It contains superoxide reductase and peroxiredoxin, which removes superoxide without producing O2.
Superoxide is lethal to living organisms due to its free radical state. Removing superoxide without producing O2 keeps the inner gradient relatively negative compared to the outer region.
It is a thermophilic bacterium that grows at temperatures above 70 ° C and also has heat-resistant aminopeptidase activity. Bacterial growth is indicated by visible turbidity. These are organisms that enable PCR (polymerase chain reaction).
It feeds on organic materials produced by bacteria and other thermophiles, including some members of archaea. DNA polymerase was the first enzyme isolated from T.aquaticus that’s why also known as Taq polymerase.
Halophiles and methanogens both are lying under this category. Halophiles thrive in a high saline environment and methanogens are the only organism on the earth which can produce methane gas and are strictly anaerobic. They are mainly found in marshy land. Sometimes they are found in the intestinal tracts of ruminants.
1. Halophiles:
Halophiles are the ones who can thrive in high saline or water conditions. They are considered a type of extremophile that can withstand extreme salt conditions in a variety of environments. Archaea are known to be the dominant group in this saline environment. Halophilic archaea examples are:
Archaeoglobus fulgidus
Archaeoglobus veneficus
Archaeoglobus profundus
Ferroglobus placidus
Halalkalicoccus jeotgali
halobacterium salinarum
Haloferax volcanii
Natrialba asiatica
Natrialba magadii
Natronomonas pharaonis
Nitrosopumilus maritimus
Archaeoglobus fulgidus
Due to its hyperthermophilicity, it grows anaerobically at very high temperatures of 60-95 ° C and optimally at 83 ° C. They can create biofilms when exposed to environmental stresses such as extreme pH or temperature, high concentrations of metals, or high salt content.
Archaeoglobus veneficus
It is a hyperthermophilic archaeon found in the deep-sea hydrothermal vent. In addition, chemical organic nutritional growth is possible by reducing sulfate, sulfite, or thiosulfate. It is also a promising candidate for inexpensive and efficient purification of oil-contaminated environments due to its ability to degrade alkanes.
Archaeoglobus profundus
It is the mixotrophic anaerobe, oxidize aromatic compounds and lives at the temperature of 820C with a pH range of 4.5 to 7.5 and a concentration of NaCl between 0.9 and 3.6%. They use hydrogen as an electron donor.
Ferroglobus placidus
Ferroglobus placidus is an anaerobic, Fe (II) oxidizer. Iron, H2 and sulfides act as electron donors and NO3 is used as an electron acceptor. An interesting fact is that Fe (III) can be produced from Fe (II) under anoxic conditions. Interestingly, Fe (III) was formed in ancient rock, and Fe (II) was thought to have been oxidized by oxygen produced by cyanobacteria.
Halalkalicoccus jeotgali
It was isolated from shrimp-salted seafood. Extremely halophilic archaea (haloarchaea) are adapted to hypersaline environments and grow optimally in NaCl solutions of 2.6 M or higher.
Halobacterium salinarum
This is also known as Halobacterium cutirubrum or Halobacterium halobium. The membrane has a single lipid bilayer covered with a slime layer. They can generate an electrochemical proton gradient across the membrane by respiration and/or the light-driven proton pump bacteriorhodopsin.
Haloferax volcanii
Haloferax volcanii thrives in high salt environments. They promote salt crystallization by absorbing sunlight with a photosynthetic pigment known as carotenoids. It was first isolated from Dead Sea sediments.
Natrialba asiatica
They can live in extreme conditions, especially if they are capable to live in water saturated with salt. The genome encodes for many putative proteases/peptidases. Osmotic pressure and charged amino acids help to control the amount of salt in the cell.
Natrialba magadii
These are aerobic chemo-organotrophic, haloalkaliphilic archaeons that require alkaline conditions and high salt content for optimal growth. They required at least 2 M NaCl. They can grow between pH 7 and 10 with an optimum of 8.5.
Natronomonas pharaonis
It was isolated from an alkaline lake that had to deal with two extreme conditions: high salinity and an alkaline pH of 11. It grows optimally at 3.5M NaCl and pH 8.5. In contrast to other alkaliphiles, which use sodium Na+ instead of protons H+ as coupling ion between respiratory chain and ATP synthase, Natronomonas uses protons as coupling ion.
Nitrosopumilus maritimus
Ammonia-oxidizing archaea are ubiquitous in the marine and terrestrial environment and are now recognized as important contributors to the carbon and nitrogen cycle. This microbe was isolated from the bedrock of the Seattle Aquarium’s tropical basin.
2. Methanogens:
Methanogens act as a biocatalyst which occurs as an endogenous organism in many free-living marine organisms and anaerobic protozoa and is closely associated with hydrogenosomes, an organelle that produces H2, CO2, and acetate from the fermentation of high molecular weight substrates. The product of hydrogenosomes is a substrate for methane production. Methanogenic archaea examples are as follows:
Methanobacterium bryantii
Methanococcus formicum
Methanobrevibacter ruminantium
Methanobrevibacter smithii
Methanofollis liminatans
Methanogenium cariaci
Methanogenium organophilum
Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus
Methanothermobacter thermoflexus
Methanomicrobium mobile
Methanobacterium bryantii
Methanogens have an unusual requirement for Ni2+ which is a component of coenzyme F430 and hydrogenase and is necessary to prevent lysis of these organisms. Most organisms use carbon dioxide and hydrogen as an electron carrier. Autotrophic (acetoclastic) methanogens metabolize acetic acid to methane and carbon dioxide.
Methanogens are microorganisms that produce methane as a by-product of metabolism under hypoxic conditions. They are prokaryotes and belong to the archaeal domain. In marine sediments, the biological production of methane, also known as methane production, is generally limited to the decomposition of sulfates below the top layer.
Methanobrevibacter ruminantium
Methanobrevibacter ruminantium is an archaeon known to colonize the gastrointestinal tract of cattle and ruminants.
H2 is an important intermediate in the methanogenic decomposition of organic matter and acts as a reducing agent for methanogenic archaea to produce CH4, formate dehydrogenase is isolated from this bacterium and the enzyme uses F420 as the electron acceptor when formate is the substrate.
Methanobrevibacter smithii
It is a methanogen, a dominant, gram-negative, hydrogen-nutritive, archeon of the human gut that recycles hydrogen by combining it with carbon dioxide to form methane. The accumulation of hydrogen in the intestine reduces the efficiency and energy yield of microbial fermentation. As they an important role in removing excess free hydrogen.
This is an obligate anaerobe, mesophilic stain as gram-negative with peritrichous flagella. The optimum pH for growth is 7.0 i.e. neutral. They are found in high-rate wastewater bioreactors or solfataric fields of Mount Tatio in the Atacama desert. As electron donors, they use 2-propanol, 2-butanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, and 1-butanol instead of H2. They need acetate as a carbon source for growth.
Methanogenium cariaci
Thermophilic coccoid methanogenic bacteria that grew optimally at about 55 °C were isolated from CO2 using 2-propanol as a hydrogen donor for methanogenesis. In addition, H2, formate or 2-butanol was used. They are strictly anaerobe, non-motile, gram-negative and found in marine and lake sediments that lack oxygen.
Methanogenium organophilum
It is strictly anaerobic and uses primary or secondary ‘OL’ groups as electron donors to reduce chemosynthetic nutrients, H2 , and in some cases formate, and carbon dioxide to methane. Optimal temperature range 15-35 ° C; Optimal pH 6.0-7.9.
Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus
They are hyperthermophilic methanogens and were among the first microbes to have their complete genome sequenced. The main function of methanogens is to remove various fermentation products produced by other microorganisms and produce methane and CO2. Hydrogen reduction promotes an environment that promotes the growth of fermenting bacteria.
Methanothermobacter thermoflexus
They are also obligate anaerobes and can grow best between 550C-650C. In the absence of sulfates, metal oxide, and nitrites, methanogens consume these substrates and contribute to the anaerobic food chain in two different ways. First, methanogens catalyze the final stages of anoxic decomposition of organic matter to produce methane. Methane is released into the atmosphere. Second, it keeps the fermentation pathway energetically good by maintaining a very low H2 partial pressure.
Methanomicrobium mobile
Methanomicrobium mobile is considered to be the major methanogen in the lumen of humans and other castles. They produce methane by reducing carbon dioxide with hydrogen or formate. They are unable to metabolize acetate, methylamine or methanol.
Summary
I concluded my words with these lines that archaebacteria are the most primitive organism on this earth as they were the initiators of the living organism during “The Big Bang Theory”. When the temperature, pH, salinity and other climatic factors are at their extreme, at that time they are the one who survives. Members of Archae have the unique feature to thrive in any condition and sometimes they are exploited purposely by humans for their welfare.
In this article, you will get to know about the description of fungi and unicellular fungi examples. Fungi are heterotrophic, achlorophyllous, eukaryotic, and nonvascular thalophytes. Most are multicellular and filamentous.
The study of fungi is known as mycology. Unicellular fungi are the organism or the member of Kingdom fungi having single-cell with other accessory organelles. Unicellular fungi are generally indicated as yeasts. They generally reproduce through budding or binary fission of asexual reproduction.
They vary from unicellular-yeast, to uninucleate Synchytrium to filamentous hyphae. Many hyphae are collectively known as mycelium. Fungi are found everywhere, they mostly like a moist and slightly acidic environment. They can grow with or without oxygen i.e. aerobes and anaerobes respectively.
Due to a lack of chlorophyll, they are heterotrophic which means they are dependent on the autotrophic plants. That’s why they can exhibit two forms:
Parasitic fungi are dependent on the living host for their survival while saprophytic fungi obtain their food from dead and decaying organisms/organic matter.
The fungal cell wall is made up of a polysaccharide “Chitin” with the chemical formula (C22H54N4O21)n is a complex substance. In some genera, cellulose and callose are the building materials of the cell wall.
As they are eukaryotic, they possess a true nucleus, dictyosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, centrioles etc.
Characteristic features of unicellular fungi:
Yeasts are approx 1500 species and belong to the class Ascomycota and only some species fall in Basidiomycota. They are generally found on carbohydrate-rich materials as they act upon the complex form like pecto-cellulosic materials and make them soluble & absorbable by converting them into simpler forms.
Like animals, they also need nitrogen from their food as they are able to fix nitrogenous compounds like ammonia, urea and other amino acids.
They can reproduce through budding, in which an oval shape protrudes from the parent body and falls off in the surrounding after maturation, these buds gave the rise to new offspring. Or by binary fission like bacteria to form daughter cells via mitosis.
Example: Budding yeast- Saccharomycescerevisiae
Fission yeast- Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Sometimes they undergo aerobic respiration i.e. glycolysis followed by the Krebs cycle but mostly go forward with the anaerobic mode of respiration in which they feed upon sugar molecule(glycolysis) and convert it into ethanol and carbon dioxide as evolving gas with the release of the low amount of energy.
They can exhibit in both haploid and diploid forms (dimorphic). They need an optimum temperature for proper growth and reproduction and it lies between 250-300 while pH should range between 4-4.5.
Fermentative properties of yeasts are exploited by human beings as they are used for mainly two purposes;
Brewing: In this process, yeasts are used to produce wines, beer, ethanol and other alcoholic components.
Baking: In this process, yeasts are used to ferment the dough to make bakery products like biscuits, cheese, cakes and other edible food items.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
These are the most commonly found yeast grouped under the class Ascomycota which means they produce their fruiting body in the form of ascus. Sometimes they are spherical or maybe egg-shaped present in soils worldwide. They are used in the manufacturing of food by causing fermentation in sourdough, biscuits, cookies, wines, and ethanolic drinks. Commercially, they are the hero of industrial microbiology nowadays.
In favourable condition, (in the presence of oxygen) they reproduce and increases their biomasses i.e. rise in number. When oxygen becomes the limiting factor, simultaneously they start producing gas plus ethanols via the anaerobic mode of respiration.
Schizosaccharomyces pombo
These are the suitable model organism from the kingdom fungi for the study of the eukaryotic, unicellular organism.
This is the sixth eucaryotic organism whose genome has been sequenced. Unlike the budding yeast, they are rod-shaped cells and divide through their longitudinal axis to produce two-daughter cells by the process of binary fission. They have no industrial applications.
They are generally found in the haploid state in nature. And in an unfavourable condition, they usually reproduce through conjugation as they possess two mating types i.e. h+and h–.
Cryptococcus neoformans
Most of the species of cryptococcus are specifically found on leaf surfaces but this C. neoformans have the property of infecting immunologically weak humans and causes a disease known as cryptococcosis.
They also cause infection in the genital tracts of men & women. Sometimes the use of antibiotics facilitates the growth of these fungi. They release a specific phytochemical “phenoloxidase” which helps to prevent the white blood cells of the host to act upon the fungi.
Cryptococcus albidus
This belongs to the basidiomycetes and almost 30 species are isolated from the environment to date. These are also budding yeast and have a rigid cell wall composed of polysaccharides. To detect this organism a specific dye is used- India ink preparation. These are having high oil content, and are utilized for the production of biofuels, biodiesels, biofertilizers and biogas recovery.
Candida albicans
It is an opportunistic pathogen that survives on 35-370 C.These are the dimorphic fungus found on human mucosal membranes like mucosa of skin, mouth, gastrointestinal tract and genital tract and are little harmful.
They cause a variety of diseases like thrush in the throat in which hyphae of the fungus reach the oesophagus and lead to itching, rashes etc. HIV patients are mostly infected by this organism. New-born babies are also found infected in some cases through an infected birth canal termed candidosis. The severe form is systemic candidosis.
Candida antartica
It is also known as pseudozyma antartica, an anamorphic, basidiomycetous yeast. They are widelyutilized for industrial purposes like extracting lipase enzymes called CALB- Candida antartica lipase B. In some circumstances, they behave as endosymbionts and are also used for biodiesel production.
Candida auris
This fungus causes candidiasis. As per the reports, they are spread from Asia to Europe and were initially isolated from the ear canal of a human being in 2009. It becomes the point of attraction due to its multi-drug resistant property.
They fed on glucose, fructose, and sucrose but not on lactose. It is generally isolated from the bloodstream and urine samples of some infected patients. It is mostly obtained from Africa and Brazil. This is known for its pathogenicity in human beings.
Candida blankii
They are also budding yeast and belong to the same family. They are responsible for a diseasein humans known as stomatitis and prove themselves as a dangerous pathogen for living beings. They are generally associated with lungs infection and cystic fibrosis.
Candida dubliniensis
This is the opportunistic pathogen causing diseases in immunocompromised human “fungemia” and AIDS infected individuals. They are sensitive to fluconazole but if it is used for the long-term then it becomes resistant.
It is the haploid species of Candida and a pathogen to humans. They also show commensals with some other organisms. These are mostly resistant to antifungals, fluconazole and Echinocandin.
These are also budding yeast utilized for chocolate production. To remove the bitter taste of Cacao beans, these are used for fermentation and give them appropriate taste and aroma. They need an optimum temperature of 400-450 C for proper growth and development. These are the only species which can grow on Sabouraud’s culture medium.
Candida parapsilosis
They are not the obligate human fungus as they can cause infection in tissues and wounds. They are the causative agents of sepsis in the skin. The colony can be isolated from your hands easily. It consists of three genes which together secrete a corticosteroid “candiparapsins”.
These are the vegetative cells which can reproduce through budding and exhibit dimorphism. They require an optimum temperature of 250-300 C. Including proteases, long-chain dicarboxylic acids are also can be obtained.
An aggregate fruit is a type of fruit that forms from multiple ovaries in a single flower. This means that instead of a single fruit developing from one ovary, multiple fruits develop from several ovaries within the same flower. The result is a cluster or group of fruits that are closely packed together. Aggregate fruits are quite common in nature and can be found in various plant families. Some examples of aggregate fruits include strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, and mulberries. In this article, we will explore these examples in more detail and learn about their unique characteristics. So, let’s dive in and discover the fascinating world of aggregate fruits!
Key Takeaways
Aggregate fruits are formed from multiple ovaries of a single flower.
Examples of aggregate fruits include strawberries, blackberries, and raspberries.
Each small unit of an aggregate fruit is called a drupelet.
Aggregate fruits are rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants.
They are commonly used in desserts, jams, and smoothies.
Aggregate fruits are a fascinating aspect of plant biology. In this section, we will delve into the concept of aggregate fruits, explore some examples, and understand their significance in the world of botany.
What are Aggregate Fruits?
In the botanical world, fruits are the mature ovaries of flowering plants. They contain seeds and are formed after successful pollination and fertilization. Aggregate fruits, also known as etaerio fruits, are a unique type of fruit that develops from a single flower with multiple ovaries. These ovaries fuse together to form a cluster of individual fruits, each containing its own seed. The term “aggregate” refers to this cluster or group of fruits that develop from a single flower.
Examples of Aggregate Fruits
There are several examples of aggregate fruits found in nature. Let’s explore some of the most well-known ones:
Strawberry: The strawberry is a classic example of an aggregate fruit. Each “seed” on the surface of a strawberry is actually an individual fruit, known as an achene. These achenes are embedded in the fleshy receptacle, giving the strawberry its characteristic appearance and taste.
Raspberry: The raspberry is another popular example of an aggregate fruit. It consists of multiple small drupelets that are attached to a central core. Each drupelet contains a seed and contributes to the overall structure and flavor of the raspberry.
Blackberry: Similar to the raspberry, the blackberry is an aggregate fruit composed of multiple drupelets. However, unlike the raspberry, the drupelets of a blackberry detach easily from the core when picked.
Boysenberry: The boysenberry is a hybrid fruit that is a cross between a blackberry, raspberry, and loganberry. It exhibits the characteristics of an aggregate fruit, with multiple drupelets forming a cluster.
Dewberry: Dewberries are closely related to blackberries and raspberries and share similar characteristics. They are aggregate fruits consisting of multiple drupelets.
These examples showcase the diversity and complexity of aggregate fruits, each with its own unique structure and flavor.
Aggregate fruits in Botany
Aggregate fruits play a crucial role in plant reproduction and seed dispersal. By developing from a single flower with multiple ovaries, these fruits increase the chances of successful seed dispersal. Each individual fruit within the aggregate has the potential to carry a seed, ensuring a higher probability of successful reproduction for the plant.
Furthermore, aggregate fruits are not only significant in botany but also in horticulture and fruit farming. Many of the fruits we consume, such as strawberries and raspberries, are aggregate fruits. Understanding their growth patterns, cultivation techniques, and optimal conditions for growth is essential for fruit farmers and horticulturists.
In this section, we explored the concept of aggregate fruits, examined some examples, and discussed their significance in the world of botany. Aggregate fruits, with their unique structure and reproductive advantages, are a fascinating aspect of plant biology. Whether it’s enjoying a juicy strawberry or cultivating raspberries in a garden, these fruits continue to captivate us with their diversity and delicious flavors.
Aggregate Fruits: A Comprehensive List
Aggregate fruits are a fascinating category of fruits that are formed from multiple ovaries in a single flower. These fruits are unique because they develop from a cluster of flowers, each contributing to the overall structure of the fruit. In this section, we will explore some examples of aggregate fruits and delve into their characteristics and uses.
Strawberry
One of the most well-known examples of an aggregate fruit is the strawberry. This juicy and delicious fruit belongs to the Rosaceae family and is native to Asia, Europe, and North America. The strawberry is formed from a receptacle that holds numerous tiny ovaries, each containing a seed. These ovaries, commonly referred to as achenes, give the strawberry its characteristic texture. The sweet and tangy flavor of strawberries makes them a popular ingredient in various desserts, jams, and beverages.
Raspberries are another delectable example of an aggregate fruit. These vibrant red berries belong to the Rosaceae family and are native to Europe and North America. Like strawberries, raspberries are formed from multiple ovaries that develop from a single flower. Each tiny ovary, known as a drupelet, contributes to the overall structure of the raspberry. Raspberries are known for their sweet and slightly tart flavor, making them a delightful addition to salads, desserts, and even savory dishes.
Blackberries are closely related to raspberries and share similar characteristics as an aggregate fruit. These dark and juicy berries are also part of the Rosaceae family and are native to Europe and North America. Blackberries are formed from multiple drupelets that develop from a single flower. The drupelets are tightly packed together, creating a luscious and flavorful fruit. Blackberries are commonly enjoyed fresh, used in baking, or transformed into jams and jellies.
Boysenberry
The boysenberry is a hybrid fruit that is a cross between a blackberry, raspberry, and loganberry. This aggregate fruit was named after its creator, Rudolph Boysen. Boysenberries have a deep purple color and a sweet-tart flavor. They are formed from multiple drupelets, similar to blackberries and raspberries. Boysenberries are often used in pies, jams, and syrups, adding a burst of flavor to various culinary creations.
Loganberry
Loganberries are another hybrid fruit that is a cross between a blackberry and a raspberry. These aggregate fruits have a deep red color and a unique flavor that combines the sweetness of a raspberry with the tanginess of a blackberry. Loganberries are formed from multiple drupelets, just like their parent fruits. They can be enjoyed fresh or used in jams, jellies, and desserts.
Dewberry
Dewberries are closely related to blackberries and share many similarities as an aggregate fruit. These dark purple berries are formed from multiple drupelets, similar to blackberries and raspberries. Dewberries have a sweet and slightly tart flavor, making them a delightful treat when eaten fresh or used in various culinary applications.
Wineberries are a type of aggregate fruit that belongs to the Rosaceae family. These vibrant red berries are native to Asia and are closely related to raspberries. Wineberries are formed from multiple drupelets, similar to raspberries and blackberries. They have a unique flavor that is often described as sweet and slightly tart. Wineberries can be enjoyed fresh or used in jams, jellies, and desserts.
They are initially isolated towards the regions of Caspian Sea but then spread throughout the world’s waterbodies mostly slow-flowing river and pond water. They are hydrophytic plants and flowers are light-pink in colour. Also the National Flower of India. Edible part is the root-rhizome, can be sliced and fried. They are highly rich in dietary fibres, globulin, albumin and other essential amino acids.
Rose:
Botanical name: Rosa sp.
Family: Rosaceae
Type of fruit: Etaerio of berry (known as rose-hip)
Rose hips are present below the corolla section of the flower and having seeds. They are rich in vitamin C, vitamin B5, quercitin and other bioactive compounds.They generally develops after the falling-off of the petals of the flower. They posses anti-oxidants to prevent our body from oxidave stress.
Aconite:
Botanical name: Aconitum variegatum
Family: Ranunculaceae
Type of fruit: Etaerio of follicles
They are native to Western & Central Europe. Flowers are ornamental. It generally grown near rocky regions and provides a base for pioneer community of ecological individuals. They are useful in improvement of blood circulation but overdosage leads to lethality.
They are also called windflowers. Approx 100 species are found over the planet. These are native to the northern temperate zone and some other regions too. Beautiful and attractive flowers facilitates the process of wind pollination. Also known as ‘blue poppy’.
In this section, we explored a comprehensive list of aggregate fruits, including strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, boysenberries, loganberries, dewberries, and wineberries. Each of these fruits is formed from multiple ovaries in a single flower, resulting in a unique and flavorful eating experience. Whether enjoyed fresh, used in culinary creations, or transformed into jams and jellies, aggregate fruits offer a delightful burst of flavor and are a true testament to the wonders of nature’s bounty.
The Culinary Perspective: Aggregate Fruits in Cooking
When it comes to cooking, fruits play a vital role in adding flavor, texture, and visual appeal to a wide range of dishes. While we are familiar with common fruits like apples, oranges, and bananas, there is a whole world of fruits out there that offer unique flavors and culinary possibilities. One such category is aggregate fruits.
Exploring the World of Aggregate Fruits
Aggregate fruits are a fascinating group of fruits that develop from multiple ovaries within a single flower. This distinctive characteristic gives them a clustered appearance, with each individual unit known as a drupelet. These drupelets are attached to a central core, creating a delightful combination of flavors and textures.
Unlocking the Culinary Potential
The unique structure of aggregate fruits opens up a world of culinary possibilities. Their juicy, flavorful nature makes them perfect for incorporating into a variety of dishes. Here are a few ideas to get you started:
Fruit Salads: Combine a variety of aggregate fruits, such as strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries, with other fruits for a refreshing and colorful salad.
Desserts: Use aggregate fruits as a topping for cakes, pies, and ice cream. Their vibrant colors and sweet-tart flavors will add a burst of freshness to your desserts.
Jams and Preserves: Take advantage of the natural pectin in aggregate fruits to make delicious homemade jams and preserves. Spread them on toast or use them as a filling for pastries.
Smoothies: Blend aggregate fruits with yogurt, milk, or juice for a nutritious and flavorful smoothie. You can also add other fruits and vegetables to create your own unique combinations.
Sauces and Syrups: Cook down aggregate fruits with sugar and water to create flavorful sauces and syrups. These can be drizzled over pancakes, waffles, or used as a glaze for meats.
Aggregate fruits offer a delightful combination of flavors, textures, and culinary possibilities. From strawberries and raspberries to blackberries and boysenberries, these fruits can elevate your dishes with their vibrant colors and unique taste. So, the next time you’re in the kitchen, consider incorporating some aggregate fruits into your recipes for a burst of freshness and flavor.
Exploring the Jackfruit: An Unusual Aggregate Fruit
The jackfruit, scientifically known as Artocarpus heterophyllus, is a fascinating example of an aggregate fruit. Native to Asia, particularly in the northwest region, this fruit belongs to the Moraceae family, which includes other well-known fruits like figs and mulberries.
The jackfruit stands out from other fruits due to its unique characteristics. It is the largest tree-borne fruit in the world, with some specimens weighing up to 80 pounds (36 kilograms) and measuring over three feet (one meter) in length. Its impressive size and weight make it a true marvel of nature.
The Structure of a Jackfruit
To understand why the jackfruit is considered an aggregate fruit, let’s take a closer look at its structure. The jackfruit develops from the multiple ovaries of a single flower, which fuse together to form a single fruit. Each of these ovaries contains a seed, and when they mature, they become the fleshy, edible parts of the fruit.
The jackfruit’s exterior is covered in a spiky, green skin, which turns yellow when ripe. Inside, the fruit is divided into numerous segments called “bulbs” or “pods.” Each bulb contains a sweet, yellow flesh that surrounds a large seed. These bulbs are the individual fruits that make up the aggregate structure of the jackfruit.
Culinary Uses and Nutritional Benefits
Jackfruit is not only intriguing in appearance but also highly versatile in the culinary world. Its sweet flavor and meaty texture make it a popular ingredient in both savory and sweet dishes. In fact, it is often used as a meat substitute in vegetarian and vegan recipes due to its fibrous texture, which resembles pulled pork or chicken.
Apart from its culinary uses, jackfruit is also packed with essential nutrients. It is a good source of dietary fiber, vitamin C, potassium, and antioxidants. Additionally, it contains small amounts of other vitamins and minerals, making it a nutritious addition to any diet.
Cultivation and Availability
Jackfruit trees thrive in tropical and subtropical regions, where they require warm temperatures and abundant rainfall. They are commonly found in countries such as India, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Indonesia. However, due to its increasing popularity, jackfruit is now also cultivated in other parts of the world, including the Caribbean, Brazil, and Australia.
In areas where jackfruit is grown, it is often harvested during the summer months when the fruits are fully ripe. The ripe fruit can be enjoyed fresh, or it can be used in various culinary preparations. In addition to its flesh, the seeds of the jackfruit are also edible and can be roasted or boiled.
The jackfruit is a remarkable example of an aggregate fruit, with its large size, unique structure, and versatile culinary uses. Whether you’re a fan of its sweet flavor or interested in exploring plant diversity, the jackfruit is definitely worth discovering. So, next time you come across this tropical giant, don’t hesitate to give it a try and experience the wonders of this unusual fruit.
Accessory Fruits Vs Aggregate Fruits: Understanding the Difference
When it comes to fruits, there are various types that exist in nature. Two such types are accessory fruits and aggregate fruits. While they may seem similar at first glance, there are distinct differences between the two. In this section, we will explore the dissimilarities and shed light on what sets them apart.
What are Accessory Fruits?
Accessory fruits, also known as false fruits, are formed from the enlargement of a part of the flower other than the ovary. In simple terms, they are formed when the receptacle, which is the base of the flower, grows and develops along with the ovary. This results in the formation of a fruit that incorporates both the ovary and the enlarged receptacle.
One common example of an accessory fruit is the strawberry. The fleshy part that we typically consume is not the actual fruit but rather the enlarged receptacle. The tiny seeds on the surface of the strawberry are the actual fruits, known as achenes. Other examples of accessory fruits include the fig and the pineapple.
What are Aggregate Fruits?
On the other hand, aggregate fruits are formed from a single flower that contains multiple separate carpels. Each carpel develops into a small fruit, and all these fruits are clustered together to form a larger, composite fruit. This cluster of fruits is often referred to as an “etaerio.”
A well-known example of an aggregate fruit is the raspberry. The raspberry is composed of multiple small fruits called druplets, each containing a seed. These druplets are attached to a central core, creating the characteristic aggregate structure. Other examples of aggregate fruits include blackberries, boysenberries, and loganberries.
The Key Differences
While both accessory fruits and aggregate fruits involve the enlargement of parts of the flower, there are a few key differences that distinguish them from each other:
Formation: Accessory fruits are formed when the receptacle grows along with the ovary, while aggregate fruits are formed from multiple separate carpels within a single flower.
Structure: Accessory fruits have a fleshy part that is derived from the enlarged receptacle, while aggregate fruits consist of multiple small fruits clustered together.
Examples:Common examples of accessory fruits include strawberries, figs, and pineapples, while aggregate fruits include raspberries, blackberries, and boysenberries.
Seed Location: In accessory fruits, the seeds are typically found on the surface or within the enlarged receptacle, whereas in aggregate fruits, the seeds are contained within the individual druplets.
Understanding the difference between accessory fruits and aggregate fruits can enhance our knowledge of the diverse forms and structures that fruits can take. Whether it’s the juicy sweetness of a strawberry or the delightful tartness of a raspberry, these fruits exemplify the fascinating variations found in nature.
Conclusion
In conclusion, aggregate fruits are a fascinating category of fruits that are formed from multiple ovaries of a single flower. They are characterized by their unique structure, where each individual unit or “drupelet” contains a seed. Some common examples of aggregate fruits include strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries. These fruits not only provide a burst of flavor and nutrition but also offer a delightful eating experience with their juicy and succulent texture. Whether enjoyed fresh, added to desserts, or used in various culinary creations, aggregate fruits are a delicious and versatile addition to any diet. So next time you bite into a juicy strawberry or savor the sweetness of a raspberry, remember that you are indulging in the wonders of an aggregate fruit.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is an Aggregate Fruit in Biology?
An aggregate fruit is a type of fruit that develops from the merger of several ovaries that were separated in a single flower. In other words, it’s a fruit that forms from a single flower that has multiple pistils. Examples of aggregate fruits include strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, boysenberries, loganberries, dewberries, and wineberries.
What are Some Examples of Aggregate Fruits?
Aggregate fruits include a variety of berries such as strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, boysenberries, loganberries, dewberries, and wineberries. These fruits develop from a single flower with multiple pistils, making them an aggregate of smaller fruits, known as druplets.
How Does an Aggregate Fruit Differ from a Multiple Fruit?
While both aggregate and multiple fruits form from multiple ovaries, they differ in their origin. Aggregate fruits form from a single flower with multiple pistils, while multiple fruits form from a cluster of flowers (an inflorescence). A common example of a multiple fruit is a jackfruit.
What is the Definition of an Aggregate Fruit in Botany?
In botany, an aggregate fruit is defined as a fruit that develops from the fusion of several ovaries that were separated in a single flower. Each ovary forms a small fruit (druplet) that are clustered together to form the aggregate fruit.
Can You Explain the Concept of Aggregate Fruit?
Aggregate fruits are a type of fruit that develops from a single flower with multiple pistils. Each pistil forms a small fruit, known as a druplet. These druplets cluster together to form the aggregate fruit. This is seen in fruits like strawberries and raspberries.
What is the Definition of an Aggregate Fruit in Cooking?
In cooking, an aggregate fruit is a fruit that is made up of a collection of smaller fruits, known as druplets. These fruits are typically used in a variety of dishes, from desserts to salads. Strawberries and raspberries are common examples of aggregate fruits used in cooking.
What is an Example of an Accessory Fruit?
An accessory fruit, also known as a pseudocarp, is a fruit in which some of the flesh is derived not from the ovary but from some adjacent tissue. Strawberries are a prime example of an accessory fruit, where the part we eat is derived from the receptacle that holds the ovaries, not the ovaries themselves.
Can You List 5 Examples of Aggregate Fruits?
Sure, here are five examples of aggregate fruits: 1. Strawberry 2. Raspberry 3. Blackberry 4. Boysenberry 5. Loganberry
What is the Difference Between Simple, Aggregate, and Multiple Fruits?
Simple fruits develop from a single ovary of a single flower and include fruits like peaches and pears. Aggregate fruits, like strawberries and raspberries, develop from multiple ovaries of a single flower. Multiple fruits, like jackfruit and pineapple, develop from the ovaries of multiple flowers in an inflorescence.
Can You Give Two Examples of Aggregate Fruits and Explain Their Development?
Two examples of aggregate fruits are strawberries and raspberries. Both of these fruits develop from a single flower with multiple pistils. Each pistil forms a small fruit, known as a druplet. These druplets cluster together to form the aggregate fruit.
This article includes the True Fruit Example and its descriptions. So, true fruit examples are at your fingertips. “Just one click away”- As a layman, we only knew about the fruit which means something attractive, juicy and pulpy containing seed(s). But biologically, fruit is also categorised into many parts.
So, the fruit is just the fate of the ovary and a major consequence of the process of fertilization. They are subdivided into True Fruit and False Fruit. True fruit is none other than the ripened ovary having one or more than one seed. Here are some true fruit examples:
The branch of science that deals with the study of the development and cultivation of fruit are known as Pomology. We can say that fruit is the ripened ovary that surrounds the seed(earlier, ovules). Fruit is formed by the fusion of gametes i.e. male and female gametes of the plant to form a zygote, known as fertilization.
As based on other parameters, fruits are classified into different groups, even, the development of fruit is the major cause to creates the division into plant kingdom that is Gymnosperm(naked seed) and Angiosperm(seed covered with ovary wall) but based on development, fruit is categorised into two categories,
It develops from the ovary. The fruit consists of pericarp and seed. The pericarp is further divided into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. So, due to this reason, true fruit is also known as Eucarp. True fruits are also divided into 3 major groups:
Simple fruit
Aggregate fruit and
Multiple fruits
The figure shows the classification of fruits.
According to the positions of seed and pericarp, true fruits are grouped into-
Drupe( Stony Fruit):
Fruits are developed from monocarpellary or multicarpellary, syncarpous fertilized ovary. Epicarp of these fruits are responsible for the hard rind, the mesocarp is fleshy or sometimes maybe fibrous and the endocarp forms a stone-like centre. Examples: Coconut, Mango, Cherry etc.
Berry(Bacca):
Fruits are developed from monocarpellary or multicarpellary, syncarpous fertilized ovary. The Epicarp of these fruit forms a rind layer, the mesocarp is fleshy while the endocarp is a thin layer(membrane-like structure). Examples: Tomato, Grapes, Guava etc.
Pepo:
This fruit resembles berries. Epicarp makes a hard rind and has multiple seeds. This type of fruit belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae. Examples: Watermelon, Muskmelon, Pumpkin etc.
Hesperidium:
Fruits are developed from monocarpellary or multicarpellary, syncarpous superior ovary. Many oil glands are present on the epicarp. Mesocarp is a fibrous and white part connected with epicarp while endocarp is hairy and membranous projects inside to form multiple chambers. These all are edible parts. Basically family members of Citrus(Rutaceae) are examples.
False fruit:
It is developed from other accessory parts of the plants including the ovary like the base of the flower, peduncle, perianth, calyx, receptacle,thalamus and inflorescence. They formed without the process of fertilization that’s why this is also known as pseudocarp. The best example of the false fruit is Apple as it shows the modification of the thalamus. Other examples are:
This fruit is native to subtropical and tropical America, Australia and South Africa. They are highly rich in vitamin A, vitamin C and other essential electrolytes plus minerals. Having leathery rinds with oil glands contains juicy and sweet-sour edible flesh. They are slightly acidic due to the presence of citric acid.
2. Lemon
Botanical name: Citrus lemon
Family: Rutaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=18 (diploid)
Fruit type: Hespiridium
Are first grown in Assam, Northern Burma also some regions of China. They are highly rich in vitamin C while other nutrients and minerals are low in fat content. Fruit contains a high level of flavonoids and essential oils. Although they are frost-resistant because of their low compositions of carbohydrates, they can freeze easily even at that normal temperature at which other plants can easily survive.
3. Tangerine
Botanical name: Citrus reticulata
Family: Rutaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=18 (diploid)
Fruit type: Hespiridium
They are native to Southeast Asia and Europe and are abundant in vitamin C. Fruits are almost similar to an orange but are smaller in size. Trees and shrubs forms are available in gardens. It is also called as Mandarine-Orange. Fruit having leathery epicarp with juicy endocarp(carpels sections) containing 5-10 seeds(fertilised ovules).
4. Water-melon
Botanical name: Citrullus lanatus
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=22 (diploid)
Fruit type: Pepo
They are native to South Africa (Tropical-Africa). Fruits are rich in vitamin A, C and vitamin B6. They are also abundant in other essential amino acids. They contain some specific ions like magnesium and potassium but are low in fat and calories. Fruit contains 92% of water which keeps you hydrated and also helps in the reduction of reactive oxygen species(ROS) activity. It possesses antioxidant activity. While “seedless watermelon” is triploid i.e. standard chromosomes are 3X form causes sterility in plants are in plain-dark green in colour.
5. Musk-melon
Botanical name: Cucumis melo
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=24 (diploid)
Fruit type: Pepo
This is originated in Persia and also native to Persia and other nearby regions. It is also known as nutmeg-melon and cantaloupes in some regions of the world mostly in the Northern hemisphere of the Globe. In India, it is mostly found in Kashmir and some other nearby states. As the name suggests, musk is derived from the word musk-deer having a different aroma(musky-scented). Fruit is a good source of zeaxanthin, alpha and beta carotene. Vitamin D and E are major components and are arginine-rich.
6. Cucumber
Botanical name: Cucumis sativus
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=14 (diploid)
Fruit type: Pepo
Plants originated in Greece and Italy while spread over Western Asia and some other countries. Flowers are pollinated by bumblebees. They are rich in water content and other minerals like calcium, potassium, magnesium and manganese. Fruits are a good source of many phytonutrients like flavonoids, terpenoids, diterpenes and triterpenes etc. They are having low compositions of carbohydrates, fat and cholesterol and contain a small amount of vitamin A, C and K.
7. Pumpkin
Botanical name: Cucurbita moschata
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=40 (diploid)
Fruit type: Pepo
Trees are native to North America, Mexico and the United States. The growing season lies in between January- and March and September to December. The rind is smooth & lightly grooved towards the inside and is used to make pickles. They are also called as winter-squash. It is rich in vitamin C and β-carotene; ions like calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, and iron are abundant in this fruit.
8. Coconut
Botanical name: Cocos nucifera
Family: Arecaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=32 (diploid)
Fruit type: Drupe
The fruit was originated in Southeast Asia and natively found in tropical coastal areas in India. The edible part of the fruit is endocarp and known as coconut meat while the coconut water is the liquid endosperm. The embryo is in a white-coloured endocarp enclosed in a hard shell known as a coir. They are highly nutritious containing a good amount of water. Fruit is also rich in multiple nutrients like iron, phosphorous and zinc. It contains 80-90% of saturated fats. This is used commercially across the globe. It is also used energy-giving drink in summers.
9. Mango
Botanical name: Mangifera indica
Family: Anacardiaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=40 (diploid)
Fruit type: Drupe
Trees are native to India and Southeast Asia and contain many the phytochemicals like mangiferin, anthocyanin, catechins, benzoic acid, kaempferol, gallic acid etc. It contains super-antioxidant which help in the deduction of reactive oxygen species responsible for lipid peroxidation. This fruit is rich in vitamin A and vitamin E and other electrolytes like folate, copper and magnesium. The edible part is a fleshy, juicy, yellow coloured mesocarp.
10. Cherry
Botanical name: Prunus avium
Family: Rosaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=16 (diploid)
Fruit type: Berry
The trees are deciduous and native to Northern-temperate regions, North America, Western Asia and some parts of Europe. Flowers are very beautiful and pink in colour growing in temperate summer. Initially, they are found at archaeological sites. Cherries are of two types:
Heart-type is having soft and fleshy endocarp while bigarreau-type is crisp-fleshed
11. Peach
Botanical name: Prunus persica
Family: Rosaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=16 (diploid)
Fruit type: Drupe
Trees have beautiful pink flowers with five petals blooming in the month of January- to February. Fruits are velvety, soft and fleshy. The growth of trees is 8 to 10 metres long and wind pollination is observed in peach flowers.
Plants are mostly trees and shrubs. Flowers and fruits are attractive as peaches and cherries. Ther are long as 9 metres approx. Mostly used to make cakes, jams and other bakery foods.
13. Chikoo
Botanical name: Manilkara zapota
Family: Sapotaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=14(varies species to species)
Fruit type: Drupe
This fruit is also known as Sapota in some parts of the country. As per the statement from the Times of India, Chikoo is good for health as they contain high anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative agents. Fruits are rich in caloric contents and sweet in taste. The high percentage of vitamin C and vitamin E helps in the improvement of skin that’s why also used for cosmetic purposes.
Olives are mostly used for ornamental purposes. They are having a maximum oil content and are native to subtropical regions of the world.
15. Walnut
Botanical name: Juglans regia
Family: Juglandaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=32
Fruit type: Drupe
Walnuts are rounded-single seeded fruit with a hard shell. Botanically, it’s not a nut. They are also rich in anti-oxidants and oil contents and help in the prevention of rancidification of aldehydes and fatty acids.
They are native to China and Taiwan while commercially grown in New Zealand and California and exported throughout the world which is why possesshigh market value.
17. Blueberry
Botanical name: Vaccinium sect. cyanococcus
Family: Ericaceae
Chromosomes: shows polyploidy (diploid to hexaploid)
Fruit type: Berry (True berry)
They are a very good source of vitamin C and vitamin K and manganese ions with multiple anti-oxidants. They are mostly shrubs with 55-60 inches in length. Apart from the good taste, it also helps in maintaining metabolism and prevents us from coronary diseases.
18. Date palm
Botanical name: Phoenix dactylifera
Family: Arecaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=36
Fruit type: Berry
Commonly they are known as dates and contain almost 15 species. They show geitonogamy type of pollination. Due to being rich in nutrition, they became the staple food of Iran, Iraq and other nearby portions of the country. They are initially cultivated in the Indus Valley region. They need the soil free from calcium-carbonate for proper growth and development.
19. Guava
Botanical name: Psidium guajava
Family: Myrtle
Chromosomes: 2n=44
Fruit type: Berry
They are native to tropical America and sub-tropical worldwide and are rich in both water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins. They can be easily grown by the grafting method of reproduction. Fruit might be helpful in the reduction of blood sugar levels in type-2 diabetes.
20. Grapes
Botanical name: Vitis vinifera
Family: Vitaceae
Chromosomes: 2n=38
Fruit type: Berry
Due to inhibition in the production of anthocyanin, some species are purple in colour. They are low in protein while keeping you hydrated by their high water content. They are mostly used in the formation of different types of alcohol & beverages. They are also used in the making of cakes, jams, jellies and other edible items.
They are native to the Himalayas and widely cultivated throughout India. They need slightly acidic loamy soil to grow. They are highly rich in iron as suggested by physicians to increase the blood-haemoglobin levels. They are abundant in antioxidants and other minerals. They have a different phytochemical i.e. ellagitannins, also known as “punicalagin”
The most specific feature of the family Solanaceae is having persistent calyx. They originate from Central America. They are a good source of vitamin C and have a specific phytochemical “lycopene”. They are used for domestic purposes, for making ketchup and puree etc. They are pollinated by bumblebees and are known as buzz pollination.
They are native to the Western hemisphere of the globe. They provide riboflavin, biotin and thiamine and possess nutty flavour. They are used as a salad in some parts of the world. They are also rich in oil content and possess unsaturated oils.
They are native to major parts of South Africa. They are used for medicinal preparations for schizophrenia and other disorders. They possess some phytochemicals like arecatannin, arecoline and gallic acid. Chewing the nut is injurious to health as leads to the formation of tumours, banned by the government in some regions of the country.
In this article, you will get to know about theseed plant examples. Seed plants are phanerogams(currently not in use) and also known as spermatophytes, a collection of gymnosperm & angiosperms.
Seed plants evolved from cryptogams by the occurrence of seed habit. The first step towards this is shown by the formation of two types of spores i.e. megaspores producing female gametophytes and microspores producing male gametophytes.
The first seed plant is a gymnosperm, having a naked seed without fruit. They are flowerless and lack the enclosure of fruit. They have cones or strobili as reproducing organs. They are the most abundant group of plants in the class. It includes a wide range of plants from shrubs to trees. It ranges from the smallest wolfia to the longest sequoias.
They are divided into 4 main domains:
Cycadophyta
Ginkgophyta
Coniferophyta
Gnetophyta
Are any of the Seed Plant Examples also Monoecious?
Yes, several seed plant examples are also monoecious. Monoecious plant examples include corn, pumpkin, and oak trees. These plants possess both male and female reproductive organs on separate parts of the same plant. As a result, they are capable of self-fertilization and cross-pollination, promoting genetic diversity within their species.
Cycadophyta
The genus Cycas includes about 20 species distributed worldwide, cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions over the planet. It is found in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, China, Burma and other pacific islands. In India, it is found in Orissa, Bengal, Madras etc. It looks like a small palm tree in appearance and two species are planted for ornamental purposes in gardens (ex: Cycas revoluta and Cycas siamensis). Other four species also found in India are Cycas circinalis, Cycas pectinata, Cycas rumphii, and Cycas beddomei.
They are having slow growth process, unbranched stem and soft-wood trunks i.e.manoxylic type
Anemophilous type of pollination is found, having no female cones and devoid of double fertilization.
They possess coralloid roots with a normal root system. Some members of cyanobacteria occupied the internal spaces in between roots for better absorption of water and minerals by developing a symbiotic relationship with them. Example: Nostoc and Anabaena
Cycas revoluta
It is commonly known as Sago palm or King Sago. They are native to Japanese islands and southern china. It is drug-tolerant and requires very little maintenance.
The height of the plant lies between 2-9feet. Due to slower growth, it can be used as ornamental at home. They are common as Bonsai plants. Leaves are arranged in a rosette fashion and are deep green.
Cycas circinalis
It is restricted to the southwest zone of India. Commonly known as Queen Sago. The height of the plant is 4-5 metres. It is found in rocky geographical regions as well as near coastal regions. It is considered “Endangered” in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species,2010 due to a population reduction.
Cycas rumphii
It is native to Australia and Indonesia. The height of the tree is up to 10 metres. This species is classified as the “Near-threatened species” in the IUCN Red List of Threatened species in 2011. It is commonly known as Bread palm. The gum extracted from the plant is used for the making of glues/adhesives.
Cycas beddomei
It is native to Tirumala Hills near Andhra Pradesh and the northwest of Madras. Pollens are narcotic so are seeds as well. Gum is used as an antidote for snake and other animal bites.It is also one of the threatened plant species of India.
Cycas pectinata
It is found in the northeast region of the country. Nativeto China, Bangladesh and some parts of Nepal. They are most probably 10-12 metres long in height. Stems are mostly used to make toys and cosmetics for hair-related issues. Species are classified as “Vulnerable” in IUCN Red List Data, 2010.
Native to Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam and some other nearby countries. It is commonly known as Thai Sago. It is approx 100-150 cm long. Only young leaves are edible while seeds are not edible due to toxicity. Because it contains a toxic phytochemical “cyacin” which is a hepatotoxic agent. It is also categorised under the vulnerable species in the IUCN list.
Ginkgophyta
Two of the three genera become extinct i.e.Ginkgogoites and Baiera while the only living genus is Ginkgo. The single species of this genus is Ginkgo biloba also known as the maidenhair tree. It has been found in the Jurassic period (the era of dinossaraus). It is native to China but also found in some regions of America, Central Europe, Australia and North America etc. It is approx 60-90 meters long in height. They possess a specific feature of fire resistance.
Ginkgo biloba
The only surviving plant of this division with a height of ~156 meters. Deciduous in nature and has hard woody trunks with proper growth rings. As per the specific name, leaves are bilobed and become golden during autumn.
Reproductive parts are dioecious as they are present on different plant bodies. They are highly rich in flavonoids and terpenes & specially used in the treatment of pre-menstrual syndromes, vertigo and cognitive impairment.
CONIFEROPHYTA/PINOPHYTA
Commonly known as conifers i.e. cone-bearing plants. Over 700 species are present over the earth. They are dominant in the colder regions worldwide and cold zones of the north of the country. From the largest tree to the oldest ones all are lying in this group of gymnosperms.
They have needle-like leaf structures with xerophytic characteristics like the presence of sunken stomata with a thick cuticle layer over the leaf surface to prevent the process of transpiration. Stems are mostly tall and branched in nature due to the rich deposition of lignin in stems, that’s why they are so hard and represent the pycnoxylic type of woody trunks. Tap-root system is found with the mutual relationship of ectotrophic mycorrhiza.
Male and Female cones are present and are monoecious, which helps in the process of reproduction. They can reach up to the height of 3-50 metres. They appear pyramidal or conical like a “Christmas tree’ due to radial branching. This shape helps in the slipping of snow from the trees to prevent them from being overweight on ice on them.
Some of the common examples are Sequoia, Thuja, Abies, Firs, hemlock and spruces etc.
They are endemic to Norfolk Islands and also found in Brazil, Argentina and New Guinea. These trees are also know as monkey-puzzle trees.They can reach up to 200 feet in length. they posses beautiful whorls and exactly looks like a Christmas trees decorated with snow.
Araucaria hetrophylla
Araucaria hetrophylla Image credit: Wikimedia common
Abies balsemea
Also known as Canada balsam
Gum is used as a fixative agent to form permanent slides in laboratories.
Tallest gymnosperm with a height of 110-120 metres.
It cannot tolerate atmospheric pollution.
Pinus roxburghii
This is also called “Chir pine”
Native to North-America
Pinus wallichaina
They are native to Himalayan & Hindi-kush mountains and reach a height of 55-60 metres long. They fall into the threatened species of IUCN Red List Threatened Species. They are also called Himalayan White Pine.
They are native to New Zealand and other northern regions of the world. They are the oldest species in the family as they are a follow-up from the Jurassic era. Wind pollination is observed in the flowers of the plant. The height of the tree is 45-50 metres.
These are also known as Kauri pine. Trees are up to a height of 25-30 metres. They are native to Australia and Budapest. The canopy is almost cylindrical. Woods and trunks are used for furniture, pencils and bats making purposes.
Pinus merkushi
They are native to Myanmar and Vietnam. Leaves are needle-like in shape and are long up to 20-25 metres.
Pinus sylvestris
They are also known as Scotch-pine and are native to Russia, China, Finland, Germany and many other countries. Trees are long up to 30-40 metres. They also have mycorrhizal interaction in their roots for proper water and mineral absorption.
They are native to California and Mexico. They are the evergreen conifer of the family. Flowers bloom in the season in bright and beautiful yellow colour that’s why termed as yellow showering of the pinus. In roots, they show mycorrhizal interactions as Verbicular-Arbuscular mycorrhizae(VAM) along with the normal root system.
Pinus khasya
As the name suggests, they are found on the Khasi hills of Meghalaya in India that’s why are named Pinus khasya. They are used for timber purposes and the production of turpentine. They can grow up to 45 metres. Initially, they are conical in shape but as time passes away it becomes rounded. These plants are categorised as “Least concern” in IUCN Red List Book.
GNETOPHYTA
Almost 65 species are found in these genera. They are specifically found in the Himalayan regions of India. It includes the living plants close to angiosperms by having the flower-like arrangement of sporophylls. Gnetales are the highest gymnosperm as they act as the connective link between gymnosperms and angiosperms group of plants. Most are extinct while the living plants are
Ephedra(E.sinica, E.nevadenis);Gnetum(G. gnemon, G.costatum); and Welwitschia(Welwitschia mirabilis).
Ephedra sinica
They are sun-loving and mostly found in arid regions i.e. regions of Asia, Europe and North Africa. It is an evergreen shrub with scaly leaves and is used in the treatment of cough and cold. Ephedrine is the phytochemical extracted from the plant which is similar to adrenalin. Some of the deaths were observed during the trials which is why it was banned by US FDA (Food and Drug Administration) in 2004.
Gnetum
It is generally found in some regions of Africa and South America. The tree is about 20 metres long and has pulm-like edible fruit. It inhabits humid, tropical and swampy rainforest and possesses angiosperms like leaves having margined lamina with pinnate venation. Examples: Gnetum gnemon, Gnetum costatum
Welwitschia mirabilis
Dessert-dwelling and confined to dry-region of the world. They show extremely xerophytic features. The plant is mostly dioecious and has an unbranched stem. They have a unique characteristic of slow growth as two leaves grow for the entire lifespan of the plant.
