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9 Peptide Bond Example: Detailed Fact And Comparative Analysis

January 20, 2024February 27, 2022 by Sania Jakati

Peptide bond example is the one wherein the linking of the atoms is through a peptide bond.

What we understand by a peptide bond is bond formation takes place when two amino acids combine together and form a bond, so basically, it is the linking of amino acids. Based on the number of amino acids coming together or combining peptide bonds can be classified as dipeptide bond, tripeptide, and so on.

Peptide bond examples:

Valine

Its synonym is 2-Amino-3-methylbutanoic acid. It was initially isolated in 1901 (Herman Emil Fischer) from Casein. It is an -amino acid that is used for synthesis of proteins (biosynthesis).

Coming to the chemical formula of valine it has six carbon atoms, eleven hydrogen atoms, one nitrogen atom, and two oxygen atoms. The molar mass is observed to be around 117.148g mol-1 and density is 1.316g/cm3. The melting point of valine is around 298 degrees Celsius and is almost soluble in water. It is a very important amino acid for the human body (our human body does not synthesize on its own) hence can be fulfilled by consuming food that are sources of valine.

Image credit : Wikipedia

Sources include meat, various dairy products, beans, etc. The significant functions of valine include required for metabolism of muscles, repairing of tissues and most important maintaining proper balance of nitrogen in human body.

Biosynthesis of Valine

Pyruvate undergoes acetohydroxy acid synthase and gives alpha-Acetolacetate.

Alpha-Acetolacetate undergoes acetohydroxy acid isomeroreductase and yields alpha, beta-dihydroxy-isovalerate.

Alpha, beta-dihydroxy-isovalerate undergoes Dihydroxy acid dehydratase and alpha-ketoisovalerate is obtained.

Alpha- ketoisovalerate undergoes aminotransferase giving Valine.

Glucagon

Its synonym is glucagonum and glucagone. It was discovered as the hyperglycemic factor (in pancreas) in the year 1922 by C.Kimball and John R. Murlin. Its chemical formula is C₁₅₃H₂₂₅N₄₃O₄₉Sand the molecular weight is 348.7.

In appearance, it is a white colored powder (crystalline) and does not have characteristic odor. Talking about its solubility, it is soluble in alkaline and acid type of solution but seems to be insoluble in organic solutions and water. It is stable for around almost 48 hours if stored at a temperature of 5 degrees Celsius. Being a peptide hormone it is secreted in the pancreas by the alpha cells.

It is considered as a catabolic hormone as it increases glucose, fatty acids concentration in the bloodstream. Coming to glucagon preparation it is obtained when proglucagon is cleaned in pancreatic islet alpha cells by proprotein convertase 2.

Carnosine

Its synonym is beta-Alanyl-L-histadine. It was isolated in 1900 from extract of muscle skeletal by Vladimir S.G. It is made up of beta-alanine, histadine (amino acids).

Taking into account the chemical formula, it has nine atoms of carbon, fourteen atoms of hydrogen, four atoms of nitrogen, and three atoms of oxygen. In appearance, it is almost solid (crystalline). It has a molar mass of 226.236g mol^-1. It is observed to melt at a temperature of 253 degrees Celsius. Unlike valine, Carnosine can be secreted in the body (in the liver).

carnosine — **Image credit : Wikipedia**

It has a pKa=6.83 and therefore acts as a good buffer (especially for animal muscles pH). It is used for many medicinal purposes like treatment related to diabetes, damage of nerves, and disorder of eyes, etc.

Opthalmic acid

Its synonym opthalmate (it is a tripeptide). This acid was isolated initially from lens of calf.

The chemical structure includes eleven atoms of carbon, nineteen atoms of hydrogen, nine atoms of nitrogen, and six atoms of oxygen. Its observed molar mass is around 289.288g mol^-1, in appearance it is solid and colorless (crystals). It plays a role in the metabolism of humans also acts as an indicator for the various biological states.

It finds important application in food and pharmaceutical industries. It can be synthesized (biosynthesis) through the biological method by carrying out reactions between 2-amino butyric acid and gamma-glutamylcysteine, glutathione synthetase.

Oxytocin

This peptide is made up of 9 amino acids. Its synonym is Pitocin. It was first discovered in the year 1909 by Henry H.D.

Its molecular formula includes forty-three atoms of carbon, sixty six atoms of hydrogen, twelve atoms of nitrogen, twelve atoms of oxygen, and two atoms of sulfur. Its molecular weight is 1007.2. In appearance, it is white in color (powder). Talking about the solubility, it is soluble in water as well as in alcohol like butanol. When oxytocin is heated it decomposes and gives out fumes of sulfur, nitric oxides which are toxic in nature.

9 Peptide Bond Example: Detailed Fact And Comparative Analysis 4 — **Image credit : Wikipedia**

Oxytocin’s structure is almost similar to that of vasopressin. It is formed in hypothalamus (by posterior pituitary). It is released in the women’s body at the time of childbirth required for contraction of uterine during delivering the baby.

Read more about : Disulfide Bonds Examples : Several Facts

Alanine

Its synonym is 2-Aminopropanoic acid. It was first isolated in 1850 by Adolph S from natural substances. This amino acid is very essential for the process of biosynthesis of various proteins.

Its chemical formula includes three atoms of carbon, seven atoms of hydrogen, one atom of nitrogen, and two atoms of oxygen. Its observed molar mass is 89.094g mol^-1 and in appearance, it is a white-colored powder. It is said to have a density=1.424g/cm³ and melts at a temperature of 258 degrees Celsius. It is soluble in water (at a temperature of 25 degrees Celsius). The free radical (CH₃C^.HCO^–₂) is produced on carrying out deamination of molecule of alanine.

This property finds its application in radiotherapy (for dosimetric measurement). In living beings, the amino acid alanine has a significant role in the cycle of glucose-alanine (between the tissues and liver). Talking about the synthesis, it can be prepared by biosynthesis by the reaction of pyruvate with valine, leucine, and isoleucine (preferably amino acids having branched chain). There is one more method (chemical synthesis) for preparing alanine by carrying out condensation of acetaldehyde and ammonium chloride (sodium cyanide should be necessarily present in the reaction mixture.

Glycine

Its synonym is glycol. It was initially isolated by Henri B. in the year 1820. Glycine is one of the simplest amino acid. Its chemical formula includes two atoms of carbon, five atoms of hydrogen, one atom of nitrogen, and two atoms of oxygen.

Its observed molar mass is around 75.067g mol-1 and in appearance, it is a white-colored solid. Its density is 1.1607g/cm3 and melts at a temperature of 233 degrees Celsius. It is found to be soluble in water (at a temperature of 25 degrees Celsius), pyridine. Glycine finds its application in the synthesis of various kinds of chemicals (acts as an intermediate) such as imiprothrin, iprodione, herbicides glyphosphate. Most important, it is used for preparing thiamphenicol a very essential medicine.

Also acts as a buffer during the process of electrophoresis for maintaining the pH and to prevent the sample from getting damaged. Many foods are sources of glycine such as peanuts etc. Talking about its chemical properties, it has both acid as well as base. Glycine is amphoteric in aqueous solution having a pH lower than 2.4, it is seen to convert into ammonium cation and above the pH=9.4 it converts into glycinate. We can prepare glycine by carrying out amination on chloroacetic acid and ammonia.

Glutathione

Its synonym is gamma-L-Glutamyl-L-cysteinylglycine. It was first isolated by Frederick G. Hopkins in the year 1929 from yeast. Its chemical formula has ten atoms of carbon, seventeen atoms of hydrogen, three atoms of Nitrogen, six atoms of oxygen, and one atom of sulfur.

Its observed molar mass is 307.32g mol-1 and melts at a temperature of 195 degrees Celsius. It is soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol like methanol and ethers. Glutathione acts as an antioxidant by protecting the cells from reactive species such as oxygen by neutralizing. Talking about its applications, it is used for making wine. Also used in the cosmetic industry. Glutathione can be prepared by the biosynthesis process involving two steps.

In the first step, L-glutamate is reacted with cysteine to give gamma-glutamylcysteine, upon adding glycine to the obtained product at C-terminal yield our required peptide. Human beings can synthesize Glutathione in the body. Let’s have a look at methods of determining Glutathione. One method involves extracting thiols by using a buffer (HCL) and then reducing the thiols by dithiothreitol and further labelling by monobromobimane. The monobromobimane once binds to glutathione becomes fluorescent and at later stages, the thiols can be separated (using the HPLC method).

Calcitonin

Its synonym is thyrocalcitonin. It was discovered by Douglas H.C, B. Cheney in the year 1962.

It is a hormone (peptide) consisting of around 32 aminoacids. There is disulfide linking/bridging between residues of cysteine at 1, 7 positions also there is prolinamide at the terminus (carbonyl). It is released by parafollicular cells (of the thyroid). Its important function includes seen to cause reduction of calcium in the blood thus opposing parathyroid hormone effects and also plays a role in the metabolism of phosphorus and calcium.

Most important application is in recognizing nodular thyroid disease patients. Also used in treating diseases such as osteoporosis.

Amanitin

Its synonym is alpha-amanitine. It was isolated somewhere around 1900.

Its molecular formula has thirty nine atoms of carbon, fifty four atoms of hydrogen, ten atoms of nitrogen, fourteen atoms of oxygen, and one atom of sulfur. Its observed molar mass is around 918.97g mol-1 and melts at a temperature around 255 degrees Celsius. It is soluble in water. This particular compound is observed to be very hazardous.

It is quite strong, specific, and can bind to enzyme RNA polymerase (II) and leads to cytolysin (of hepatocytes in liver cells). And this gives rise to symptoms like cramps and diarrhea eventually leads to failure of kidneys and liver. At times can be fatal as well. Hence while handling it one should be very careful.

Anserine

Its synonym is beta-Alanyl-3-methyl-L-histidine.

Its chemical structure has ten atoms of carbon, sixteen atoms of hydrogen, four atoms of nitrogen, and three atoms of oxygen. Its observed molecular weight is 240.26. In appearance, it is solid. Its melting point is around 227 degrees Celsius and boils at a temperature of 611.30 degrees Celsius. As we know it is a dipeptide (consisting of beta-alanine, 3-methyl-L-histidine units).

Mostly red meat is the source of anserine. It can also act as an antioxidant.

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Mastering Linear Pair Examples: A Comprehensive Guide

June 18, 2024February 25, 2022 by Core SME lambdageeks.com

Linear pairs are a fundamental concept in geometry, where two adjacent angles add up to 180 degrees. This relationship is observed in various examples, such as the angles formed by intersecting lines or the angles created by a straight line with a ray. Understanding linear pairs is crucial for solving geometric problems and proving geometrical … Read more

21 Frequency Of A Wave Example: Detailed Explanations

January 20, 2024February 12, 2022 by Raghavi Acharya

In this article on physics, we will learn and understand the various frequency of a wave example and its detailed explanations and facts.

Frequency is a term in physics that refers to the rate at which any wave, whether longitudinal or transverse, occurs at a point for a given period. It even tells about the vibrations in an object for a considered period. We can measure frequency in all the things where the wave propagates.

Below are some lists of different frequencies of a wave example that we can observe in everyday objects.

Frequency of sound heard by animals
Frequency of musical instruments
Frequency of light
Frequency of sound
Frequency of red light
Frequency of radio-broadcasting
Frequency of radio waves
Frequency of medical instruments
Frequency of communication devices
The frequency used in microwaves
Frequency of electrical appliances
Frequency of gamma-ray used in cancer therapy
Frequency observed in mobile and cellular devices
Frequency of ultraviolet ray
Use of frequency in photosynthesis
The frequency used for satellite communication devices
Frequency of television remote
Use of frequency in detecting underwater objects
Use of frequency in aviation and air traffic
Frequency of military equipment
Frequency of a wave example of magnetic resonance imaging

Frequency of sound heard by animals

Most animals hear the sound of frequencies greater than 20KHz, which human beings cannot hear. The mammals such as bats, whales, and other animals such as dogs, cats, and dolphins tend to hear frequencies greater than normal hearing.

frequency of a wave example — Image Credit: Pixabay free image

Frequency of musical instruments

Every note on any musical instrument has different frequencies. It may sometimes become high or low depending on the played note. In a ukulele, if you play A minor, it has a different frequency than G. These frequencies can be measured using the formula and written in terms of Hertz, i.e., 243Hz.

Frequency of light

The spectrum of the light consists of seven colours, and each one of them consists of different frequencies; their frequencies usually depend on their wavelength. The highest frequency light rays consist of higher energies that help in the propagation of waves. Frequencies of light rays help in estimating their wavelength.

Frequency of sound

The frequency variation may change for different sound waves depending on their wavelength. For example, the sound of the drum or thunder may have a loud sound, but it has a very low frequency, whereas breaking of chalk and screaming has a very high frequency of sound.

Frequency of red light

The red light, in general, has a larger wavelength than other colours of VIBGYOR; as we know, both wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional to one another; we say that the red light has low frequency and has less energy compared to other light waves.

Frequency of radio-broadcasting

To broadcast any radio program, it uses frequency modulation stations. The sound signals of different frequencies are modulated using amplitude and frequency modulation. The modulated signals are transmitted, received, and tuned to the same frequency range for broadcasting.

Frequency of radio waves

Radio waves typically have the most central wavelengths required for many applications from space to household uses. The various frequency range of radio waves, such as high-frequency low-frequency waves, are modulated and used in satellites, communication purposes, cellular, medical instruments etc.

Frequency of medical instruments

Numerous medical instruments are used to scan different parts of a body, whether internal or external organs. Different electromagnetic spectrum waves are used to detect and diagnose the medical condition of organs. An instrument can surely use high or low-frequency waves as required for diagnosing and treating disorders.

Frequency of communication devices

Various communication devices, such as mobile, telephone, radio, Gmail, Wi-fi, and television, use various radiation waves that help extract, send, and receive information. All these devices use different frequency ranges for communication.

The frequency used in microwaves

Microwaves have a short high-frequency range in comparison with radio waves. The higher frequency also leads to a higher energy that helps transmit waves. Even these frequencies of microwaves are used in broadcasting and communication. It is widely used in ovens to bake food items.

Frequency of electrical appliances

In many heating and electrical appliances, IR light is used. The particular appliances absorb the band of frequencies in IR light for functioning. The appliances like electric cooker, steamer, vacuum, heater, dryer etc., use these frequencies and get heated up by increasing the movements in the matter. The frequency of these electrical appliances come between the various ranges of IR light and is the best frequency of a wave example.

Frequency of gamma-ray used in cancer therapy

The higher energy waves, that is, gamma rays, have a very high-frequency range that helps cure many disorders and treat cancer. The frequency range of gamma rays is so high that it will kill the tumours. Many other applications of gamma rays are used in the medical domain because they have very short wavelengths.

Frequency observed in mobile and cellular devices

The mobile device consists of varieties of applications. Each application uses a different frequency range of radio and IR waves to perform the functions smoothly. These frequencies help display images for communicating purposes, playing audios and videos. Since radio frequencies are used, transmitting signals and information will be more effortless and quick. Even the other cellular devices such as landlines work using the same application, and these are perfect frequency of a wave example.

Frequency of ultraviolet ray

Ultraviolet waves or violet light have the lowest wavelengths compared to other light rays. Since the wavelength is small, it has a higher frequency and higher range of energy. The various frequency range of UV- light is used to apply vision goggles and other military and medical equipment.

675px Cocaine under UV light 02 — Image Credit: UV light, JJ Cunning, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Use of frequency in photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a phenomenon used by plants and trees to prepare their food or source of energy. For photosynthesis to occur, the source of visible light should be present; we know that visible light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum that consists of a specific frequency range. So, we can infer the photosynthesis process uses a frequency range of visible light to occur.

The frequency used for satellite communication devices

Satellites are the primary source of communication that helps transmit information to various devices. The primary waves that are used to transmit and receive the waves are radio waves. The specific frequency range of these radio waves is used to extract the processed information through the signal. The antennas help in the modulation of frequency.

Frequency of television remote

The TV remote that we use in our household works with the help of IR radiation. The Infrared radiation of frequency range between 300mHz to 400gHz is used in remote functioning. It is a range of frequencies different from the carrier frequency of IR remote.

Use of frequency in detecting underwater objects

The submarine vehicle is constructed to exhibit the activities of detecting and navigation underwater. For communication purposes in submarines, radio waves are used. The radio waves used here has low frequency since they have a higher wavelength. A particular term called ELF, also termed as extremely low frequency of radio waves, is considered for this purpose.

Use of frequency in aviation and air traffic

Even aviation uses very high frequency, also called VHF, which uses radio waves for communication between any air vehicle and its air traffic control department. The higher frequency part of radio waves is generally used to maintain communication between various aeroplanes or aircraft.

Frequency of military equipment

The varieties of military equipment used for the wellness of a country uses the application of frequency to achieve its purpose. The UV-cameras, goggles used for vision during nighttime, use electromagnetic waves. The waves of IR and UV are mainly used for this purpose; by varying the frequency, we can use these waves efficiently in this equipment.

Frequency of a wave example of magnetic resonance imaging

The magnetic resonance imaging technique is one of the most used machines in medicine. It uses a frequency range of radio waves between 1MHz- 300MHz to obtain the 3D image of the organs determined by the patient. For an MRI scan to be performed, it uses radio waves using an instrument that helps in other diverse medicine applications.

The above mentioned are some detailed explanations of the frequency of a wave example.

To know more facts related to waves and frequency. See below

Frequently Asked Questions on Frequency of a Wave | FAQs

What is the definition of frequency in physics?

In physical science, the word frequency always refers to measuring the vibrations of a wave for a particular period.

The definition of frequency goes like this; frequency is, in general, the measure of a total number of waves or cycles or vibrations that pass through a particular point for a particular period.

Do all bodies have a specific frequency?

All the waves exhibit consists of a frequency, and in turn, all the objects possess some waves.

The body undergoes vibrations and contains its band of natural frequency. The vocals of humans and the sound produced by various appliances have specific frequencies and are some frequency of a wave example.

Why is frequency an essential term in physics?

Frequency is a term that indirectly helps determine the wavelength range of the object or body.

It also determines how the waves pass, oscillate, or vibrate from a point. The different waves consist of frequencies that help from broadcasting, communication, electrical appliances, sound and light rays etc.

Mention the different types of frequency ranges?

There are four fundamental frequency ranges upon which various applications are considered. They are,

Band of frequency	Range of frequency
Low-frequency range (LF)	300 – 3000
kHz High-frequency range (HF)	3 – 30 MHz
Very high-frequency range (VHF)	30 – 300 MHz
Ultra-high frequency range (UHF)	300 – 3000 MHz

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7 Neutral Equilibrium Example: Detailed Explanations

January 20, 2024February 10, 2022 by Abhishek

This article will is based on neutral equilibrium example. When we hear the word equilibrium, we instantly think of balance between objects or forces. This fact is true that equilibrium directly relates to balance between two or more objects.

In this article, we will study further about equilibrium. It is more than just balancing. First we will discuss about different types of equilibrium. We will keep our focus on neutral equilibrium in this article.

A marble lying on a horizontal surface, undisturbed.
Sliding a book on the table surface, the book comes in neutral equilibrium after coming to rest.
A football lying on the ground.
A car parked without handbrakes (no external force applied for it to remain stationary).
A roller lying stationary on a flat surface.
Applying viscous cream on hands (for example sunscreen).
A flask lying on ground.
Pushing a heavy box.
Throwing a heavy object on floor, it comes to rest as soon as it lands on floor.

What is equilibrium?

As discussed above, equilibrium is a state of system in which all the forces are balanced or cancel each other. Equilibrium is very important in every field, be it chemistry or physics or engineering or in everyday lives. Equilibrium means balance, without balance it will be very difficult for lives to be simple.

Equilibrium can be broadly classified as- Mechanical equilibrium, chemical equilibrium and thermal equilibrium. Mechanical equilibrium is also divided further into sub categories out of which one such type is Neutral equilibrium (other sub types are stable equilibrium and unstable equilibrium). Lets see what is neutral equilibrium.

Neutral equilibrium example — Image: Thermal equilibrium

Image credits: Kku, Thermal equilibrium in closed system, CC BY-SA 4.0

Equation of equilibrium of forces

When multiple forces act, then it gets difficult for an object in a stable path or remain stationary. If the forces act in such a way that these forces cancel each other out then it gets easier to keep the object stable.

Lets consider two forces F1 and F2 acting on a body A. The two forces act horizontally in first case and vertically in other case. For the body to be in equilibrium in both the cases, following conditions should be satisfied-

1^st case- For the body to be in equilibrium all the forces should cancel each other that means sum of all horizontal forces should be zero.

Σ F_x = 0

where,

Fx represents all the forces in X direction

2^nd case- For the body to be in equilibrium all the forces should cancel each other that means sum of all vertical forces should be equal to zero.

Σ Fx = 0

where,

Fy represents all the forces in Y direction

What is neutral equilibrium?

Neutral equilibrium is the type of equilibrium in which the body comes to rest in its new position after being slightly displaced by some external force.

The body does not move after attaining neutral equilibrium that means it remains stationary. This is the compulsory condition for neutral equilibrium. If the body moves to its original position then it should have been moved by an external force.

The body does not come back to its original position rather remains stationary at the new position.

Neutral Equilibrium Example

Now we have an idea about neutral equilibrium, lets get a more clear about it by looking at some examples given below.

We experience neutral equilibrium in our daily lives, lets see the examples of neutral equilibrium we see in everyday lives-

A marble lying on a horizontal surface, undisturbed

The marble is not moving as there is no force acting on it. The marble is lying there on its own without any support of external force. It will only move when an external force is applied on it. Hence it is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

Sliding a book on the table surface, the book comes in neutral equilibrium after coming to rest

As the action of force diminishes, the book attains neutral equilibrium.

A football lying on the ground

When the ball is lying on the ground untouched, it does not move. An external force is required to move the ball. Without any external force, it will keep lying there. Hence it is neutral equilibrium.

A car parked without handbrakes (no external force applied for it to remain stationary)

When handbrakes are not applied it means the car is stationary on its own and no external force is applied to hold it stationary hence it is in neutral equilibrium.

A roller lying stationary on a flat surface

A roller will roll as soon as it is touched by an external force, when it is lying undisturbed the roller is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

Applying viscous cream on hands (for example sunscreen)

Viscous creams/fluids won’t move until an external force is applied on them. Like in the case of sunscreen we need to apply shear force to apply it without which it would not spread by itself.

A flask lying on ground

A flask lying on ground is stationary, it will not move unless a force is applied. Hence it is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

Pushing a heavy box

Once we start pushing a heavy box, the object starts moving but the moment we stop pushing the object stops moving. It does not move any further on its own nor it comes back to where it started moving. Hence it is in neutral equilibrium,

Throwing a heavy object on floor, it comes to rest as soon as it lands on floor

When we throw a heavy object on floor, the object goes down due to the force of gravity. When it lands on the ground, due its own weight it fails to bounce against the gravity. Hence, it stays there without getting lifted from the ground. Hence we can say that the object is in neutral equilibrium.

Neutral equilibrium of floating bodies

When a body is floating, it is said to be in neutral equilibrium when the body neither returns to its original position nor it moves any further.

M is the meta centre of the body. If it lies exactly at the same point where gravity, G lies then the body is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

What do you mean by stable equilibrium?

We have seen that in neutral equilibrium the body remains in its new position. Now in stable equilibrium the body comes back to its original position after the force is lifted up or is no more acting on it.

The displacement occurs as a result of external force applied on the body. Neutral equilibrium and stable equilibrium may sound similar but are different from each other.

Is stable equilibrium and neutral equilibrium same?

Stable equilibrium and neutral equilibrium might sound similar but they are different from each other. Although there is not much difference between them either.

The primary difference being that in stable equilibrium, the body comes back to its original position but in neutral equilibrium the body remains stationary at the new position without moving back to its original position or moving any further.

What is unstable equilibrium?

Unstable equilibrium is a state of the body where even a small movement in the body will result in a big change. That means the body is so unstable that a slight push will hamper its equilibrium condition.

We can observe unstable equilibrium in everyday lives. For example, if we place a pointed tip on a book and move the book slightly, the pointed top immediately falls down. Likewise if we place a bottle having a narrow cap upside down, it may stay stationary but as soon as a slight force is applied, it will fall down.

Significance of equilibrium

We all have experienced that perfection comes with stability. In Physics, we can observe that every atom experiences certain kind of force.

The atom is stable because the inter atomic forces are balanced The moment we try to split an atom, we get an atomic bomb!
While using a pair of scissors we find it inconvenient if the object is moving here and there, we can cut easily if it is clamped or held by hand.
Walking on an inclined road is difficult because we are working against the gravity hence equilibrium is disturbed.
Aeroplane cruises as a result of balance between force due to gravity and upthrust.
Walking is also an example of balanced equilibrium, if the gravity would have been lesser than we could have started floating mid air.

There are numerous examples in daily lives where we can thank equilibrium for existing. Without equilibrium we couldn’t be having such simplicity in our lives.

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13 Limiting reactant example: Detailed Explanations

January 20, 2024February 9, 2022 by Aditi Roy

The limiting reagent is defined as those reactant that is totally used up in the reaction medium. In most of the cases some of the reactants remain excess after completion of the reaction.

In this article ” limiting reactant example” the following examples of limiting reagent is discussed below.

Formation of Ammonia
Respiration Reaction
Reaction between BaCl₂ and AgNO₃
Oxidation of Magnesium
Reaction between Sodium Peroxide with Water
Reaction between C₂H₃Br₃with oxygen
Oxidation of Cobalt oxide.
Reaction between Silicon dioxide with H₂F₂
Combustion of Benzene
Combustion of Ethylene
Oxidation of Ammonia
Reaction between Fe₂O₃ with excess Carbon
Combustion of Sucrose

Limiting Reactant Example

Formation of Ammonia

The balanced equation of the ammonia formation in Haber process reaction is shown below-

N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3

So the ratio of nitrogen with hydrogen is 1:3 in ammonia formation.

If 2 moles of nitrogen is reacted with 6 moles of hydrogen then ratio of 2 moles of nitrogen with 6 moles of hydrogen will be-

2 : 6 = 1 : 3

Thus (3-2)= 1 mole of nitrogen will be unreacted and 4 moles of ammonia will be produced as the product.

2 mol N₂+ 6 mol H₂ = 4 mol NH₃

In the above example nitrogen is excess reagent and hydrogen is limiting reagent.

To know more please check : Peptide bond formation: How, Why ,Where ,Exhaustive Facts around it

Respiration Reaction

The balanced reaction of respiration is-

C₆H₁₂O₆ +6O₂= 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy

What amount of mass of CO₂ forms in the above reaction if 30 gm Glucose is reacted with 50 gm of oxygen?

Mole numbers of glucose= 30 gm × (1 mol/ 180.06 gm mol^-1)

=0.1667 mol glucose.

Mole numbers of oxygen= 50 gm× (1 mol/ 32 gm mol^-1)

= 1.5625 mol oxygen.

[Molar mass of glucose and oxygen is 180.06gm. mo.^-1and 32 gm mol^-1respectively].

to use 1.5625 gm O₂ , (1.5625/6) = 0.2604 mol glucose will be required. Or to use 0.1667 mol glucose, (0.1667*6) = 1.0002 mol oxygen will be needed because the ratio of the reactant side that is glucose with oxygen is 1:6.

the mole ratio of the reactant present in the reaction medium.

Oxygen: Glucose = 1.0002: 0.2604

= 3.84. Thus 0.2604 mole glucose will form (0.2604 * 6) = 1.0002 mole of Carbondioxide.

Left over or excess amount of oxygen is = (1.5625- 1.0002) mole = 0.5623 mole of oxygen.

So the limiting reagent of the above chemical reaction is Glucose.

Reaction between BaCl₂ and AgNO₃

25 ml 0.315 molar barium chloride (BaCl₂) is reacted with excess silver nitrate (AgNO₃) to form the precipitate of silver chloride (AgCl). 1.85 g AgCl will be isolated as precipitate. What will be the theoretical yield, and the percentage of yield of this reaction?

BaCl₂+ 2AgNO₃= 2AgCl + Ba(NO₃)₂

Mole numbers of BaCl₂ = Concentration of BaCl₂ * total volume of the solution

= {(0.315 molar BaCl₂)× (25/1000)} mole

=7.875× 10^-3

Thus theoretical yield of AgCl will be-

(7.875× 10^-3) mol BaCl₂ × (2 mol AgCl/ 1mol BaCl₂) × ( 143.3 g AgCl/ 1mol AgCl)

=2.257 g AgCl

Percentage of yield –

% yield = (actual yield/ theoretical yield) * 100%

= (1.85/2.25) × 100%

=82.22%

To know more please follow: 5+ Metallic Bond Examples: Explanation and detailed Facts

Oxidation of Magnesium

Calculate the mass of Magnesium oxide possible if 2.50 g Mg reacts with 16 g O₂?

2Mg + O₂ = 2MgO

(2.5g Mg / 24.3 g Mg)× ( 2 mol MgO/ 2 mol Mg)× (40.3 g MgO/ 1mol MgO)

= 4.15 g MgO

(16g O₂/ 32 g O₂)× (2 mol MgO/ 1 mol O₂)× (40.3 g MgO/ 1 mol MgO)

=40.3 g MgO

In this example Mg is limiting reactant as it produces lesser amount of MgO than O₂.

Reaction between Sodium Peroxide with Water

What is the limiting reagent if 80 g of Na₂O₂ is reacted with 30 g of H₂O?

2Na₂O₂ + 2H₂O= 4NaOH + O₂

(80 g Na₂O₂/ 77.96g) = 1.026 moles of Na₂O₂

(30 g H₂O/ 18 g) =1.67 moles of H₂O

To consume all of the water 1.67 moles of Na₂O₂ are needed.

Thus Na₂O₂is limiting reactant in this example.

Reaction between C₂H₃Br₃with oxygen

What is the limiting agent if 78 g of C₂H₃Br₃ will be required to react with 50 g O₂?

4 C₂H₃Br₃+ 11 O₂= 8CO₂+ 6H₂O + 6Br₂

78g C₂H₃Br₃= 0.292 moles of C₂H₃Br₃

0.292 moles of C₂H₃Br₃ × (8 mol CO₂/4 mol C₂H₃Br₃) × ( 44.01 g CO₂/ 1 mol CO₂) = 25.70 g CO₂

50 g O₂= 1.5625 moles of O₂

=50.01 g CO₂

Thus C₂H₃Br₃ is limiting reactant in this example.

To know more please follow: Peptide Bond vs Ester Bond: Comparative Analysis And Facts

Oxidation of Cobalt oxide

What is the limiting reagent when 30 g of CoO is combined with 2.8g of oxygen?

4CoO+ O₂= 2Co₂O₃

(30g CoO/74.9g) = 0.400. moles of CoO

2.8 g of O₂=0.0875 moles of O₂

To use all the oxygen (0.0875× 4)= 0.35 moles of cobalt oxide is required. But there are 0.400 moles of CoO.

CoO is excess reagent and oxygen is limiting reagent.

Reaction between Silicon dioxide with H₂F₂

Identify the limiting reagent when 30 g of SiO₂ reacts with 22 g of H₂F₂?

SiO₂+ 2H₂F₂=SiF₄+2 H₂O

(30g of SiO₂/ 60.08g) = 0.4993 moles of SiO₂

22g of H₂F₂= 0.6875 mol of H₂F₂.

To consume all the silicon dioxide (0.4993× 2)= 0.9986 mol of H₂F₂ will be required. But there is only 0.6875 moles of oxygen present.

Thus H₂F₂ is the limiting reactant in this example.

Combustion of Benzene

The balanced equation is-

C₆H₆(l)+ 15 O₂(g) = 12CO₂(g) + 6H₂O(g)

What is the limiting reagent if 1.2 mol of benzene is reacted with 12 mol of oxygen?

1.2 mol benzene× (15 mol oxygen/ 2 mol benzene)

=9 mol of benzene

If 18 mol of oxygen are present then (18-9) = 9 mol of oxygen remains unreacted.

Thus benzene is limiting reagent.

To know more please follow: Function of peptide bond: detailed fact and comparative analysis

Combustion of Ethylene

What is the limiting reactant if 5 g of ethylene (C₂H₄) is combusted with 3.2 g of oxygen?

C₂H₄(g) + 3O₂(g)= 2 CO₂ (g) +2 H₂O(g)

(5g ethylene/28g) = 0.178 moles of ethylene

3.2 g of oxygen = 0.1 mole of oxygen

To use all the ethylene (0.178× 3) = 0.534 moles of oxygen will be required. But there is only 0.1 mole of oxygen is present.

Thus oxygen is limiting agent in this example.

Oxidation of Ammonia

What will be the limiting agent when 5.5 g of ammonia is reacted with 16 g of oxygen?

4NH₃ (g) +5 O₂ (g) = 4NO(g) + 6H₂O(g)

(5.5 g of ammonia/17g) = 0.323 moles of ammonia

(16 g of oxygen) = 0.5 moles of oxygen

No of moles of NO =0.323 mol NH₃× (4 mol NO/ 4 mol NH₃)

=0.323 mol NO

Number of moles of NO from O₂ calculation= 0.5× (4 mol NO/ 5 mol NO) = 0.4 mol NO

Here ammonia acts as limiting reactant.

Reaction between Fe₂O₃ with excess Carbon

What is the limiting agent if 0.26 mol of Fe₂O₃ is combined with 14 g of carbon?

Fe₂O₃+ 3C = 2Fe +3CO

(0.26 mole of Fe₂O₃/159.69g) = 1.62× 10^-3 moles of Fe₂O₃

(14 g of carbon/12 g) = 1.167 moles of carbon

To use all the Fe₂O₃, (1.62× 10^-3× 3)=4.86 × 10 ^-3 moles of carbon will be required, but carbon is present in excess amount.

Thus Fe₂O₃ is limiting reactant in this example.

Combustion of Sucrose

10 g sucrose is reacting with 8 g of oxygen. Which one is the limiting reactant?

C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁+ 12O₂= 12CO₂+ 11H₂O

(10 g sucrose/342.3 g) = 0.0292 moles of sucrose

(8 g of oxygen/ 32g) = 0.25 moles of oxygen

To use all the sucrose (0.0292× 12) = 0.350 moles of oxygen will be required, but oxygen is present in the lesser amount than the required amount.

Thus Oxygen is the limiting reactant in this example.

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11 Stable Equilibrium Example: Detailed Explanations

January 20, 2024February 5, 2022 by Raghavi Acharya

This article will learn and understand the various stable equilibrium examples and their related concepts, facts, and conditions.

Stable equilibrium comes into action when an object loses its gravitational potential energy. As the body or object travels away from the center of mass, it comes back to its original position to make it stay stable. Some stable equilibrium examples are objects at rest, such as a chair on the floor, etc.

The various and basic stable equilibrium examples that we usually observe in our daily activities are explained below,

Furniture resting on the floor
Birthday cap resting on the ground
A bottle of juice resting on its base
Plate on a dining table
The vehicle stays at stable equilibrium on the street
Book on a study table
The coin on a paper
An object suspended by a spring
Bob of the pendulum
Ball suspended by a brick
Marble in a bowl
Clock and Pendulum

Furniture resting on the floor

If usually see that the heavy furniture such as sofa, table, chair, etc., are kept on a floor for an extended period. Furniture will be in a stable position until any force acts on them. Even after applying the force, if the furniture returns to the same position, this furniture is considered to be in stable equilibrium and is a perfect stable equilibrium example.

Stable equilibrium example — Image Credit: Pixabay free images

Birthday cap resting on the ground

A birthday cap that we use generally will be in the shape of a cone. The cone will rest on any surface through its circular base if we observe. At some point, if you try to tilt the birthday cap slightly, when released suddenly flips back to its exact position. So, we can consider the birthday cap to be in a stable equilibrium point, and it will be a primary stable equilibrium example.

A bottle of juice resting on its base

A juice bottle that we use generally will rest on any surface through its base. If At some point, if you try to lift the bottle slightly and release it shifts back to its exact position. So, we can consider the juice bottle to be in a stable equilibrium point, and it will be a primary stable equilibrium example.

Another aspect that makes this bottle stay in its stable equilibrium is gravitational potential energy.

As the juice bottle moves from its position, the central gravity increases because the point of central gravity shifts away from the equilibrium. So when it loses gravitational potential energy during any movement, it indeed comes back to its original position, maintaining stable equilibrium.

Plate on a dining table

Similarly, when the plates are placed on a dining table at rest, no force acts on it initially. After some time, if you slide the plate by applying some force on it and if the plate slides back to its exact position, then the plates are said to be in stable equilibrium and will be one of the real-life stable equilibrium examples.

The vehicle stays at stable equilibrium on the street

A vehicle usually parked on any street will maintain its stable equilibrium unless an external factor acts on it. When you try to move the vehicle, at that time, it experiences inertia and shifts back to its exact position by again attaining the stable equilibrium.

Then we can tell that a vehicle can be at stable equilibrium when parked on any street, and it is the best stable equilibrium example.

Book on a study table

If you observe that the book is lying on the study table and try to lift it to some extent and drop it suddenly, then it will fall in the same place it will land in the same place, and will be in a stable equilibrium.

The coin on a paper

Coin stays on a paper for a long time, and even if it is flipped, it will come back to its stable position. It stays in an equilibrium position for some time; even after it gets disturbed, it will be in its stable equilibrium position. It is an excellent stable equilibrium example.

An object suspended by a spring

When you suspend any small object with the spring, you will observe some up-down motion; after a while, the object attached to the spring will be at rest. This point is considered a stable equilibrium position, and after undergoing specific movements, the object will attain its stable equilibrium position, and it is a prominent stable equilibrium example.

Bob of the pendulum

Bob of the pendulum or any pendulum that we use during any physics experiment can be a tremendous stable equilibrium example. When the bob is in its mean position, it will be in its stable equilibrium; after some application of force, it moves to its extreme ends and returns to its mean position again. In this case, we should observe that the bob moving away from its equilibrium point again comes back to the same point, attaining stable equilibrium.

Ball suspended by a brick

While trying to suspend a small toy ball with the help of heavy brick and thread, you will see that after oscillating many times, the ball comes to rest at some point and stays still. Same as in the case of bob and pendulum, when you swing the ball after reaching its extreme ends, it returns to its mean position and attains stable equilibrium. The ball oscillates similarly to the pendulum and the bob.

Marble in a bowl

When we place a marble in any bowl, it will oscillate itself and come back to the point where the gravitational potential energy will be less. This point will be considered as the stable equilibrium point where the marble will attain its stable equilibrium. When it reaches the mid-region of the bowl, then it will attain stable equilibrium.

Clock and Pendulum

Frequently Asked Questions on Stable Equilibrium | FAQs

What is the simple meaning of stable equilibrium?

The term stable means that the body or object does not change the state in which they are situated.

If you try to move any material and come back to the same position, that material is said to be in stable equilibrium. It also gives the meaning that these bodies don’t change their position.

When can we say that the system is under stable equilibrium?

We can say that the system is under equilibrium when it comes back to its equilibrium position even after the slight movement.

When we disturb the body in equilibrium, it makes sure that it moves back to the same position. It is considered in the equilibrium; if it is fixed to that position without any disturbances, we can infer that the system is under stable equilibrium.

What happens to the stable equilibrium of the body when a specific force acts on it?

When a specific force acts on the body when it is in equilibrium, it tends to travel in the other direction of the movement.

If the body is moved slightly from its equilibrium, at that time, the body experiences some force; if we measure the total force, it will be available in the opposite direction of the movement of that body.

What are the essential conditions required by the object to be in its stable equilibrium?

The essential conditions required by a body to maintain its stable equilibrium are,

There are two conditions of stable equilibrium that should be satisfied simultaneously for the body.

The first condition tells that all the external force that acts on the object when added must become equal to zero.
The second condition says that both external torque and force acting on the object must become zero when added together.

What method do you adopt to increase the stability of a body?

The primary method we use to make the body in its stable equilibrium is by altering its central gravity and base width.

First, you can try to reduce the body’s central gravity or center of gravity to higher its stability.
The second thing you can try is by increasing the width of the body or object’s base.

Mention the critical factors that affect the object’s stability of equilibrium?

The vital factors that undoubtedly affects the stability of any object that is in equilibrium are,

More Body mass makes the body maintain a stable equilibrium.
An increase in inertia helps the body to be in stable equilibrium.
If the center of mass is lesser, then the object will have a more stable equilibrium.
If the size of the object’s base is more and more prominent, then even the stability will be more.
One more critical factor is that the central line of gravity must be appropriate to the object’s base.

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11 Transverse Wave Example: Detailed Explanations

January 20, 2024February 1, 2022 by AKSHITA MAPARI

In this article, we are going to discuss various transverse wave examples with detailed information and facts.

The transverse wave is a short-range propagation that comes into existence due to the vibrational motion of the particles. The following is the list of the transverse wave examples:-

Ripples on water

A ripple produced on the water is an example of a transverse wave traveling on the layer of water.

The disturbance generated in the water produces transverse waves on the water in the form of ripples that vanishes to a certain extent. The water molecules move up and down from the place perpendicularly to the wave direction.

Shear waves due to earthquake

The geo-tectonic activities on the Earth give out shear waves, that travel through the solid surface of the Earth that is on the crust as it can’t penetrate through the asthenosphere because it is in liquid form.

The converging or diverging of the plates is responsible for the earthquakes. These propagating shear waves move the particles present in the crust or rocks up and down the motion perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the shear waves.

transverse wave example — **Ripples on water;**
**Image Credit: Pixabay**

Coherent Sources of Light

When a source emits light of constant wavelength and frequency, the source is said to be a coherent source of light. The light waves travel in the direction perpendicular to the direction of the particle, hence is a transverse wave example.

If the two transverse waves of light superimpose on each other then we get either constructive interference or destructive interference of light. The constructive interference is when the crest of waves falls on each other giving the bright fringes of light and when the crest of one wave falls on the trough of the other wave, that cancels out the amplitude of the superimposing waves giving dark fringes as the intensity of light at this phase is zero.

Pendulum

The pendulum in a simple harmonic motion oscillates continuously while the oscillations are maintained by the string it is attached to which is fixed at one point.

pulse gbf63b2516 640 — **Pendulum; Image Credit: Pixabay**

The oscillation of the pendulum is periodically at a mean position of a bob, and perpendicular to the direction of movement of a bob. Hence, this is also a type of transverse wave.

If you plot a graph of position v/s time of an oscillating pendulum considering the initial position of the bob at rest at the origin of a graph when time T=0, then you will find a sinusoidal wave on the x-axis with continuous decreases in the amplitude of the waves. This is because the energy of the pendulum dissipates due to the damped simple harmonic motion of the pendulum.

Sunlight

The vibration of a quantum of light is in a direction perpendicular to the wave. It is also called the electromagnetic wave because of its characteristics.

forest g70412d243 640 — **Sunlight; Image Credit: Pixabay**

The light wave is received on the crystal of the eye and the visible spectrum is visible to the human eyes.

Concentric waves on the surface of the water on tapping the stone

On throwing the stone in the water bodies, the circular wavy pattern is generated that travels for a certain distance apart and disappears.

drop ge5fa38c9a 640 — **A concentric pattern of waves;**
**Image Credit: Pixabay**

Due to the waves developed on the layer of water, the water moves up and down, the position of the particle remains the same but because of the transverse wave the water appears to be in motion, well, it is not so.

Electromagnetic Waves

The ray of light that shows both electric and magnetic characteristics is called electromagnetic light. Sunlight is also electromagnetic in nature. The direction of the electric field applied and the magnetic field produced both lie perpendicular to each other.

X-rays used to scan the inner parts of the body is also an example of electromagnetic wave. Since the field lines produced are perpendicular to the motion of particles and the electric field, this is also an example of transverse waves.

Oceanic Waves

The waves formed in the oceanic water are transverse waves. They come from the mid-ocean, approach the shore, and vanish.

aquatic gf119919c1 640 — **Oceanic Waves; Image Credit: Pixabay**

The water molecules on the surface of the water oscillate with the wave while the transverse wave travels perpendicular to the direction of the molecules.

The oceanic wave is associated with huge energy. The potential energy of the wave is transported to shore by converting it into kinetic energy and the wave returns back to the shore converting kinetic energy back to the potential energy.

Waves from on the string of wire

If you tie one end of the rope and wave a rope up and down position, we get a transverse wave. The wave started at one end will travel across the rope and will vanish at another end of the rope. Only the wave will propagate away from you while the particle on the rope will remain at the same locality.

Plucking a string on a guitar

We plug strings of the guitar to play the notes all the time. On plucking the string, the transverse waves are set onto the string due to which the string starts vibrating.

guitar gf3dd38335 640 — **Plucking string on guitar; Image Credit: Pixabay**

The sound produced by the guitar is a longitudinal wave that travels parallelly from the sound hole of the box guitar. The speed of the wave relies upon the tension applied to the string while plucking the note and the density of the string. It is given by the relation

v=√(T/mu)

Where v is a speed of a wave

T is a tension applied to the string

mu is a linear density of a string

Slinky

Slinky can be an example of both transverse and longitudinal waves. If you hold one end of the slinky and give it a wave by moving a hand up and down position, then the transverse wave will travel from one end to another and vanish.

colors g1bee92198 640 — **Slinky;**
**Image Credit: Pixabay**

If you suspend a slinky freely in the air, then you will notice that the wave is set into motion in a slinky that will move up and down the slinky moving coils. These are also transverse waves.

Tsunami

The ocean waves formed due to tsunami shows both types of waves.

wave gc7e7beb8a 640 — **Tsunami wave; Image Credit: Pixabay**

In the place where the volcano erupts on the oceanic floor, the transverse waves are seen in the ocean that gradually turns into a longitudinal as the wave approaches the shore.

What are transverse waves?

Transverse waves are called shear waves, or s-waves that travel through the crust of the Earth due to plate tectonic activities.

The vibrations produced in the particle give a form of waves due to oscillations of the particles up and down. These waves are called transverse waves. These are short-ranged waves and do not penetrate through the fluid mediums.

The transverse waves are stimulated by some disturbances and vibrations produced. This vibration sets the molecules in the object to oscillate up and down motion that creates the wavy pattern.

How to Calculate the Speed of the Transverse Wave?

A complete one oscillation of a particle in a time period ‘T’ is called the wavelength of that particle.

The ratio of wavelength and the time required for one wavelength gives the speed of the wave. Hence, the speed of the wave is measured as

v=λ/T

The frequency of the transverse wave is the total number of waves passing through in a unit interval of time.

f=1/T

Therefore the velocity of the transverse wave is the product of the frequency of the wave and its wavelength.

v=λf

Characteristics of a Transverse Wave

The propagation of a wave is in the direction perpendicular to the motion of the vibrating particle.
The time taken to complete one oscillation by the particle, that is a time required to travel on wavelength is defined as a time period of a transverse wave.
The speed of a transverse wave is equal to the product of its wavelength and the frequency of occurrence of a transverse wave in a unit of time.
The transverse wave is also called a shear wave as the vibrational motion produced by the particle may result in the deformation of the object.
The transverse wave does not travel through the liquid state, they travel only in the direction perpendicular to the motion of the particles in the fluid.
The transverse wave propagates at lower velocity and only in a solid and gaseous states.
The velocity of the transverse wave in the liquid is zero.
If the velocity of the transverse wave is more, then the energy associated with the transverse wave is more.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the energy associated with the transverse wave?

If the number of oscillations due to vibrations of a particle is more in a given time period, then the energy of the particles is more.

The energy of a wave is directly dependent on the frequency of occurrence of waves in a unit of time. The total number of oscillations completed by the particle in a unit of time is the frequency of the particle.

Why transverse wave does not travel through fluids?

The transverse wave is generated due to the vibrations of the particle and travels perpendicular to it.

Transverse wave does not travel through fluids as no motion is driven in the direction perpendicular to the propagation of a wave.

Does the transverse wave get reflected?

A transverse wave is reflected when it is not able to transmit through the medium.

The reflected transverse wave will show the phase of π/2 from the incident wave, that is the crest of an incident wave will become a trough of a reflected wave.

On what factor does the speed of a transverse wave depend upon in the medium?

If the refractive index of the medium is more, then the speed of a wave will be very less through the medium.

The speed of the transverse wave depends upon the density of the medium of its propagation. It also relies upon the tension generated that results in the vibrational motion of a particle.

3+ Single Covalent Bond Examples : Detailed Insights And Facts

January 20, 2024January 8, 2022 by Sania Jakati

So, what are single covalent bond examples ? When bond is formed by atoms by only sharing single pair of electrons between them it is termed as single covalent bond.

Some single covalent bond examples are discussed below.

Hydrochloric Acid

It was first prepared by scientist Glauber by mixing salt (common) and sulphuric acid (concentrated).

Preparation :

1) Hydrochloric acid gas is prepared in the laboratory by heating sodium chloride with concentrated sulphuric acid in a round–bottom flask fitted with a thistle funnel and a delivery tube.

Quicklime or phosphorus pentoxide cannot be employed for the purpose as they react with the gas chemically.

2)It is conveniently prepared in the laboratory by dropping concentrated sulphuric acid into a commercial sample of concentrated hydrochloric acid in a flask fitted with a delivery tube.

Image credit : Wikipedia

Properties of Hydrochloric Acid.

Physical :

a)Hydrochloric acid gas is a colorless, pungent-smelling gas with an acidic taste.

b)It fumes in moist air and is extremely soluble in water. One volume of water dissolves 452 volumes of the gas at room temperature.

c)It is heavier than air.

Chemical

a)It is incombustible and non-supporter of combustion

Acidic Properties

a)It is a typical acid but, when perfectly dry, does not affect litmus. In a moist state or in solution, it turns blue litmus red.

b)It reacts with metals, their oxides, hydroxides, or carbonates to give chlorides, e.g.

Stability – Hydrochloric acid is quite stable and is oxidized only by strong oxidizing agents like manganese dioxide, potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, and lead dioxide or red lead.

Uses of Hydrochloric Acid

It has a very crucial application in products (pharmaceutical) as it maintains the required pH of products.
Also very important in the purification process of salt (table).
It is also used as a cleaning agent as it has the potential to remove rust (or stain ) from various metals ( copper, iron ) due to its nature ( corrosive). Note: used mostly in dilute form.
It plays an important role in producing various chemical compounds ( organic and inorganic).
As a constituent of aqua regia, which is used for dissolving noble metals.

Tests:

The following characteristics properties of hydrochloric acid are used as tests:

It gives thick white fumes of ammonium chloride with ammonia.
Chlorine is liberated when hydrochloric acid is heated with manganese dioxide.

Hydrogen Peroxide

First prepared by reaction of acid and barium peroxide (oxygenated water) by LJ.Thenard.

Preparation:

Commonly prepared at industrial level in the below-discussed method:

Method of electrolysis, wherein ice-cold sulphuric acid ( almost 30 % in concentration) is electrolyzed. The used solution is electrolyzed in acidified nature and at quite a high current. The product formed is peroxodisulphate which, on further Hydrolysis, gives out our required product.

2.It can be prepared by the process ( anthraquinone ) wherein anthraquinone is reduced then hydrogenated ( using palladium as catalyst ). It then auto-oxidises ( oxygen should be present) in which a group of ( hydroxy ) atoms are transferred to oxygen, giving us the product.

3.From Barium Peroxide: To prepare a pure sample of hydrogen peroxide free from metallic salt, barium peroxide is reacted with an acid that forms insoluble barium salt such as sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, or carbonic acid.

4.By the action of carbon dioxide on barium peroxide.

Carbon dioxide is passed through hydrated barium peroxide paste in ice-cold water, as prepared above, in a slow stream, and the precipitate of barium carbonate so obtained is filtered off.

Direct synthesis of Barium Peroxide: A new process, not yet carried out on a large scale, consists of the preparation of hydrogen peroxide by direct synthesis. Hydrogen and Oxygen mixed in volume ratio 19:1 are saturated with water vapor and subjected to the action of high voltage and high-frequency electric discharges. This produces small quantities of exceptionally pure hydrogen peroxide.

As is clear from the above equations, the original substances, i.e., ammonium sulfate and sulphuric acid, are formed again. These are transferred to the electrolytic cell and used again.

These electrolytic methods yield pure hydrogen peroxide of 30-35 percent strength.

Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide:

Physical Properties :

It is blue ( quite a light shade ) in color.
Has a characteristic odor ( quite sharp ).
Having a melting point of-0.43 degrees Celsius and boils at a temperature of 150.2 degrees Celsius.
Referring to its solubility, it is observed to be miscible in water and also dissolves (soluble) in ether and alcohol.

Chemical Properties:

Chemical properties of hydrogen peroxide are discussed under:

The decomposition is an example of an auto-oxidation reduction reaction. It is reduced to an oxidation number –2 in H2O.

The presence of manganese dioxide, carbon, or finely divided metals accelerates this decomposition. All of these substances are, therefore, called positive catalysts. Traces of acid, acetanilide, or alcohol render it more stable, i.e., serve as negative catalysts.

Dilute solutions (about 3%) of hydrogen peroxide keep fairly well in dark-colored bottles but decompose slowly when exposed to light.

Uses:

Used as a bleaching agent (pulp, paper bleaching at industrial level).
For synthesizing compounds ( organic compounds-organic peroxides).
Used in waste treatment plants ( for removal of mostly organic impurities).
It has a crucial application in disinfecting ( surfaces of surgical tools etc .).
It may also be used in skincare ( treatment process of acne).
As a propellant in rockets.
As an oxidizing agent in certain reactions in the laboratory.

Tests:

Various tests employed for hydrogen peroxide are:

a)It liberates iodine from potassium iodide in the presence of ferrous sulfate.

b)When shaken with potassium dichromate solution in sulphuric acid and ether, the beautiful blue color is seen in the ethereal layer. The blue color is ascribed to the peroxide of chromium, CrO5. The ether serves to concentrate and stabilize it.

Precautions:

Lower Concentration causes no harm, but a high concentration of H2O2 can be very dangerous as it is corrosive can damage the skin if it comes in contact with it.

Fluorine

Preparation:

The method used for the preparation of fluorine :

It can be prepared by Moissan’s process- it involves electrolysis ( potassium fluoride) at around 8-10 volts.

Properties of fluorine:

Physical:

Fluorine is a pale greenish-yellow, pungent-smelling gas. It is poisonous in nature but not as poisonous as hydrofluoric acid vapor. It is heavier than air. It condenses to a pale-yellow liquid and crystalizes to a pale-yellow solid, which becomes colorless at 21 K.

Diatomic fluorine molecule F2 corresponds to the following electronic configuration:

**Image credit : Textbook of inorganic chemistry by Sultan Chand and Sons**

Chemical:

• Affinity for hydrogen: Fluorine combines with most hydrogen explosively even in the dark and even in the dark and even at 21 K.

•With Organic compounds: Fluorine reacts with organic compounds (e.g., CH4), violently producing hydrogen fluoride and carbon tetrafluoride. Direct fluorination of organic compounds is, therefore, difficult. Fluorination is, however, possible with fluorine diluted with nitrogen in the presence of a catalyst (copper gauze).

Uses:

The existence of a single naturally occurring isotope of fluorine makes UF6 an excellent choice for the separation of uranium isotopes by the gaseous diffusion method.
Fluorine is being used to prepare derivatives useful as solvents, lubricants, refrigerants, fire-extinguishers, fungicides, germicides, dyes, and plastics. For example, ‘Freon’—a refrigerant is CCL2F2.
Teflon—a plastic, is obtained by polymerization of C2F4. DDFT is an efficient fungicide like DDT. Sulfur hexafluoride is used in nuclear physics and high voltage electricity.

Chlorine

Preparation:

Deacon’s Process:

This is an old method for the manufacture of chlorine and is obsolete now. The process depends on the fact that hydrochloric acid gas is partially converted into chlorine when heated with oxygen (in the air) at 673-723 K in the presence of a catalyst.

WhatsApp Image 2022 01 08 at 16.58.09 nnn

Bricks or porous earthenware impregnated with cupric chloride are used as a catalyst. The action of the catalyst is explained as follows:

Properties of Chlorine

Physical

It is a greenish-yellow, pungent-smelling gas heavier than air (about 2.5 times as heavy as air).
It is poisonous in nature. It causes headaches if inhaled in small quantities and may prove fatal when taken in large quantities.
It dissolves in water to give chlorine war which smells of chlorine, and on cooling deposits, greenish-yellow crystals of CL₂.8H₂O.
It can be easily liquefied by cooling under pressure to a yellow liquid which freezes at 172.4 K to a pale-yellow solid. Faraday liquefied chlorine under its own pressure by cooling in a freezing mixture.

Chemical

Combination with elements: It is one of the very reactive elements and directly combines with a number of other elements, e.g., hydrogen (in diffused sunlight); phosphorus, antimony powder, sodium, and thin copper leaves (when thrown in a jar of chlorine), iron, aluminum and other metals (when heated in a current of chlorine).
Affinity for hydrogen: Chlorine has a great affinity for hydrogen. It decomposes to water, and a burning candle or a filter paper soaked in turpentine oil continues burning in it with the deposition of carbon. In each case, hydrogen combines with chlorine to give hydrochloric acid.

Uses :

For bleaching, wood pulp is used for the manufacture of paper and rayon and for bleaching cotton and linen textiles.
For purification of drinking water.
Inorganic chemical industry, it is used for the manufacture of chloroform (CHCL₃); carbon tetrachloride (CCL₄) and ethylene chloride (C₂H₄CL₂), solvents, refrigerants, DDT, synthetic plastics, rubbers, anti-knock compounds, etc.

FAQs:

Give one way for estimation of hydrogen peroxide .

Ans- We can estimate amount of hydrogen peroxide in a sample by titration method , standard KMnO4 ( burette ) is titrated with sample+ sulphuric acid ( flask solution ).

Which of the above discussed compound is used in paper industry ?

Ans- Chlorine

Read more about Americium Electron Configuration.

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Example of Eukaryotic Cell: Detailed Insights and Facts

January 20, 2024December 15, 2021 by ANKITA CHATTOPADHYAY

Eukaryotes are any organism which contains a definite and clear nucleus. The cell of eukaryotes has a clear nuclear membrane.

Very common example of eukaryotic cell are the-

Animal cell
Plant cell
Protists
Fungi

These have well developed nucleus and organelles. Still, there are exceptions and the Monocercomonoides lack mitochondria and nucleus in the red blood cell.

The nuclear membrane of the nucleus surrounds it and consists of well-developed chromosomes which are the hereditary materials. All the example of eukaryotic cell consists of organelles.

These organelles includes mitochondria which is the energy cell, the Golgi apparatus which is a secretory device , an endoplasmic reticulum which is a canal like membrane system inside the cell and the last is lysosomes which are the suicidal bag.

Features of Eukaryotic cell

They very basic feature of the eukaryotes is the presence of an inside membrane that separates the DNA from the remaining of the cytoplasm.

The DNA in the eukaryotes is in general organized in more or only one long chain which is called the chromosomes.

The eukaryotes also have many other membranes within it which form many distinct surrounding that are subcellular. Each of the internal subcellular compartments is called organelles.

The organelles are able to get an optimum temperature for any definite process. This indicates that the eukaryotes are in general much more versatile and efficient than rest of the prokaryotes.

Single cell life

The entire organism that anyone is familiar with can be referred to as an example of eukaryotic cell.

The single celled organism consist of bacteria many other types of fungi and algae, the amoeba, the paramecia and the slime molds. The single cell has two units for its division.

The two units areone with no organelles and other with no nucleus. The two kingdoms are the eubacteria and archaebacteria. The kingdom of Protista has the most number of single celled and Fungi have both multi and single celled.

The entire organism which is single celled like the amoebae, paramecia and the yeast are all eukaryotes. Stating from the pine trees to that of the potatoes and limiting to grass all are classified to be eukaryotes.

Some of the common examples are flies, moles, tapeworms, algae, fruit flies and mushrooms.

Few common example of eukaryotic cell

Animal cell

The animal cell includes many various types of organelles that help them vary out specific functions.

Just like bacteria, the animal cell also has plasma membrane, DNA and cytoplasm. One might get to notice that the external and internal of the animal cell; looks a bit different from the one of bacteria.

All the animals ranging from fish, whales, cats, humans, arthropods including the domestic animals belong to the group for example of eukaryotes cell and its types.

In the terms of science, animals are often referred to as metazoans or the group members if the Kingdom Animalia. For more than all, this is the most common group of eukaryotes.

The animals have cell that have cell membranes but have no cell wall that is rigid just like the fungi, plants and some other protists. On considering them as a group they are much flexible, more mobile, and active part of the eukaryotic group with an exception of the coral that are present.

For the one in animal cell, they do not have any cell wall. To cover this up they have a cytoskeleton which is regarded as a network of filaments that gives support and helps in internal cell to cell transport.

On addition to it, many of the animal cell do have a nucleus and a special type of organelles which has the DNA stored. The DNA within the nucleus is the one which is generally organized inside the strings and is called as chromosomes.

The cytoplasm is the example of eukaryotic cell is filled up with various types of organelles which help the cells grow, live and then reproduce. These are many organelles that dwell in cytoplasm with the functions.

Golgi apparatus- they are used to modify, pack and sort all the proteins inside the transfer vesicles so that they can reach anywhere in the cell and can be secreted.

Vesicles- They are the tiny membranous sacs that helps the material gets transported inside the cell and can fuse with the membrane of cell to get the contents released.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum– These help in getting them separated from the nuclear membrane but then are in alignment with the rough endoplasmic reticulum. They do not have ribosomes and are in the site of lipid synthesis. They help in detoxification and help in in transportation of cell material.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum– they are continuous inside the outer layer of the nuclear envelope and include the embedded ribosomes on the external membrane. They help the cell in material transport and then segregate the protein newly made for the purpose of its transport by vesicles.

Ribosomes- They are indulged in synthesizing of proteins.

Mitochondria– this helps in generating of energy and converts adenosine diphosphate to adenosine triphsophate. This is also considered to be power house of the cell.

Centrosome– The materials of the pericentriolar and the centrioles within do play an important role for cell division and in building up of the microtubules.

Lysosomes- This also includes the peroxisomes and helps in getting rid of the waste with breaking down of the compounds and then getting the cell structured recycled.

Plant cell

They carry out the process of photosynthesis by the use of the organelles called chloroplast and do have cell wall.

Just mostly like the rest of the example of eukaryotic cell, plant cells also has there nucleus and stored their DNA within it. They are different from animals and many ways.

The very basic difference is that unlike the animal cells, the plant cells have a cell wall and are also much different from the one of the prokaryotic cells.

There are about 250,000 plant species ranging from the very mosses being simple to the eukaryotes being complex and also the hard flowering plants. The plant make more oxygen than they utilize from earth.

The plant cell do have channels which are known as plasmodesmata which helps the cell to communicate from one cell to other by transporting ions, proteins, sugars and RNA.

The plant cells have cell walls which bear cellulose and also chloroplast. Plants use up chloroplast to turn up sunlight into fuel and then produce oxygen to be used up by the cell.

Both the animal and plant cells do possess mitochondria. This organelle uses up oxygen and glucose to get carried out with the process of creating of TP and respiration. ATP is a molecule which powers plant cell process.

On addition of the plant cell having mitochondria they also have chloroplast which are vital for the process of photosynthesis. In the process of photosynthesis, the plants uses up water, sun rays and carbon dioxide to make glucose.

This glucose is later on broken down with the help of a process called cellular respiration. Both chloroplast and mitochondria have their own separate DNA which is differentiated and distinct from the DNA possessed by the nucleus.

There is also a presence of another structure in plant cell but not in animal and is called the central vacuole. Inside the plant cells, the work of the central vacuole is to maintain the turgor pressure by having kept the large vacuole inside contained with water that shall help support the cell.

Comparison of Animal and Plant cell

Plant cell	Animal cell
Cell wall Chloroplast Plasmodesma Central vacuole	Centrioles Centrosomes

Protists

They are the single celled eukaryotes and a good example of eukaryotic cell. On considering all the biology rules, there are exception too.

There are many types of seaweed which are tagged with the name of being protists despite having many cells. The protists contain quite a variety of organism.

Very few or some are not much related to each other. According to genetic research, there are reveals that say that protists have a minimum of ten groups similar to the other kingdoms.

To get a perspective of this, all the animals ranging from the worms to the humans, have been put in one kingdom. Some examples of eukaryotic cell protists consist of paramecium, amoeba, kelp and more.

Fungi

This example of eukaryotic cell is not similar to the rest. They can have many cells or exist in one. The scientists have once believed that the fungi were categorized to be a plant.

Moreover, considering the cell level they have quite a feature common to hat of the animals and plants. The first can be the cell wall is made of a protein called the chitin which is same as that of in the animal beetles but not plants.

The microscopic examples include the yeast that are used up to make wine, cheese and beer. The inclusions are also the organism that can cause ringworm and athlete foot. Much macroscopic examples can also include truffles and mushrooms.

Some parts of the eukaryotic cells are-

Cytoplasmic reticulum– Also referred to as the cell membrane. It is semi permeable and separates all the within of the cell from the outside. They contain carbohydrates, phospholipids of two layers and proteins. The structure of the phospholipid is defined in the Fluid Mosaic model. It helps the cell keep away from the cell and all injuries and helps in transport of molecules across membranes.
Cell wall- It is a non-living structure and is rigid located outside the plasma membrane inside the fungi and the plant cells. It is absent in the animal eukaryotic cell. Different eukaryotes have different composition of the cell wall. Some of the objects in plats are pectin, hemicellulose, and cellulose. In fungi, it is mannans, calcium carbonate and galactans.
Endoplasmic reticulum– They are a chain of tiny tubular leads. The space within the eukaryotic is divided by this and has two parts- the cytoplasm and luminal. They are basically of two type- smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum. It is involved in lipid and protein synthesis. The rough reticulum helps in protein folding and transports it to the Golgi apparatus.
Nucleus– This is the vital call organelle. It a structure of the soluble membrane with all the genetic information and is referred to as the brain of the cell. The nucleus is seen in almost all the example of eukaryotic cell. These also have an exception and are the sieve plant cells and the human red blood cells.
Plastids– They is also the double membrane organelles seen in the plant cells. They include pigmented and are of the types chloroplast that have chlorophyll within them. The other includes leucoplast that are the colorless ones, chromoplasts which are the colour giving pigments.
Ribosomes– These are the structures which are not bound by any membrane. They are also called as the protein factories as they are the main site for protein synthesis. They are made up of ribonucleic acids and the proteins. They also synthesize polypeptides.
Mitochondria– These are the membrane bound organelles and are referred to as the power house of the cell. There are two membranes which are inner and outer. The inner part is divided into cristae and is semi permeable. Then the membrane divides lumen into outer and inner compartment.
Lysosomes– These is located inside the Golgi apparatus and are vesicles with bounded membrane. They are the suicidal bags as they are basic in hydrolytic enzymes like the lipases, proteases and carbohydrates. They have an optimal ph. less than 7 for optimal activation. The main use of this is to let in digest proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids.

FAQs-

What is the ribosome type in eukaryotic cell?

The ribosomes are 80s type where the large subunit is 60s and the smaller part of of 40s.

Do eukaryotic cells have membrane bound organelles?

Yes, they do have organelles that are either single or soluble membrane bound.

How do the eukaryotes show movement?

They use up flagella and cilia for flexible movement of the cell.

Also Read:

Example of Prokaryotic cell: Detailed Insights and Facts

January 20, 2024December 11, 2021 by ANKITA CHATTOPADHYAY

Prokaryotes are the unicellular organism which does not have any membrane bounded structures including the basic called nucleus. They do no possess any cellular regions as well.

With the prokaryotic cells lacking almost many organelles, some of the examples of prokaryotic cell are the bacteria, mycoplasma and the blue green algae. Among these, bacteria are the most common ones.

Some more common examples of prokaryotic cells are-

Cyanobacteria
Archaea
Bacillus anthracis
Bacillus careus
Streptomyces soil bacterium
Escherichia coli bacteria
Streotpcoccus bacteria
Lactobacillus acidophilus
S treptococcus pyogenes
Sulfolobus acidocaldarius archaebacterium

All living being fall into two groups wither eukaryotes or the prokaryotes. The determination of the group of an organism is done based on the cellular structure.

The prokaryotic cells are indeed small and have simple cells that measure around 0.1 to 5 μm in diameter. Inside the prokaryotic cells, the DNA bundles are in stored all together inside a region called as nucleoid.

Cyanobacteria

They are the aquatic and photosynthetic in nature and are most in common form of bacteria. Cyanobacteria resemble bacteria in their structure.

They are the oxygenic phototrophs and example of prokaryotic cell which have in them a green pigment known as the chlorophyll. Along with a green augments they also have a blue one called the phycobilins.

They are also referred to as the blue green algae. They are important in the formation of the oxygen level in the earth’s atmosphere. They also help in several other attributes which are important to human life. They are microscopic and are found in several types of water bodies.

Just like the true algae and true example of prokaryotic cell they lack mitochondria, any membrane based nucleus and organelles. They obtain their own energy directly from the light source and get them converted into chemical for preparing their own food. This process is called photosynthesis.

Archaea

They are the group of cell that is single organism that is example of prokaryotic cell. These define the limits on earth.

Some of the examples of archaebacteria consists of the halophiles which are habitat of the salt surroundings, the methanogens that are the organism that produce methane and the thermophiles that can live in a very hot habitat.

They are organism that does not have a definite nucleus and are quite distant from the molecular characters that separate from the bacteria. Members of this group are Pyrolobus fumarii holding the upper temperature.

They had been discovered in the harsh conditions of nature like In the hot springs and the vents. They have their occurrence in the various ranges being acidic, saline and all the anaerobic situations.

The major part of archaea cannot be made in labs and the presence in the global areas has already been noticed via the use of many techniques that are culture independent.

Bacillus anthracis

They are the gram positive with being rod shape as an example of prokaryotic cell. they measure about 3 to 5 micron and have circular single DNA.

They cause up anthrax which is known to be a deadly disease for livestock and sometimes to humans as well. It is the only pathogen which is permanent along the Bacillus genus.

The discovery of this was the very first evidence in science for the germ theory of diseases. They are known to have 89 strains. Sterne strain is used in vaccines, vollum is isolated from cow.

Anthrax 836 is a high virulent strain by USSR. Ames strain are also siiolated from the cow and famous for Amerithrax attacks. H9401 is isolated from a Korean human patient using the anthrax vaccine.

It has some capsule which is a need for a full vaccine. It produces mostly there plasmid exotoxins. These can cause many infections and also can be treated with penicillin, ciprofloxacin and doxycycline.

Bacillus careus

They are the gram positive bacteria which are rod shaped and are anaerobic in nature.

These example of prokaryotic cell are motile also beta hemolytic and are known to form spore in the soil, aquatic sponges and food. The name cereus means “waxy” in Latin which means the visibility of colonies build on the blood agar.

These are said to produce toxin and are also said to be found in vegetation. It is said to cause diarrhea, vomiting and nausea. They are also associated with various infections in hosts and also are capable of causing septicemia.

These prokaryotic cells can lead to loss of vision and gastrointestinal illness. It is also associated with production of exo-enzymes that lead to destruction of tissue. They in the surrounding are ubiquitously an form spores allowinh them to survive long in harsh conditions as well.

Bacillus cereus is also caused by ingestion of contaminated food. Similar responses for the problem in respiratory tract have also been noticed in here for these bacteria.

Streptomyces soil bacterium

These are the bacteria from the family of actinomycetes and are the soil bacteria.

They are mostly in common in the family making up to 1 to 20% of the soil microbes that are cultured. The growth if its colony becomes more visible when there is a germination of spore and producing of filaments having many nuclei.

The filament of these bacteria elongates by the apical growth and branch out by continuous producing of mycelium that generated from both culture medium and inside it. There is also a formation of hyphae formed by the mycelium.

An approx. of all the natural antibiotics, two third of them and about almost 75% are from the Streptomyces genus. It has been sensed by Berdy that these generate about 7600 compounds that are bioactive in nature.

Most of these bacteria are either rhizoplane or rhizosphere colonizers. They can also be said to be endophytes that help colonize the within tissues of any host plants. These features of the example of prokaryotic cell make them a farmer favorite.

These hyphae penetrate from the medium in the visibility of the extracellular hydrolytic enzymes that mixes up the organic molecules that are present. They have filaments that allow them use the nutrients up to their efficiency and also enables colonization.

Escherichia coli bacteria

They are in general known as E.coli and are gram negative bacteria. They are the facultative anaerobic and are rod shaped.

Mostly these stains of prokaryotic cells are harmless and found mostly in the low intestine of all the warm blooded creatures. Some of the serotypes still can be the cause for food poisoning in the hosts.

They do play role in getting the food contaminated which prompt recalling of the product. The one that are not dangerous are part of all day microbut in the gut and benefits the host by generating of potassium.

These types are excelled out in the surrounding in the form of fecal matter. They grow mostly in fecal matter which are fresh under the aerobic conditions for about three days and decline slowly after the process.

Streotpcoccus bacteria

They are the compositions of the gram positive type of bacteria and are general example of prokaryotic cell.

The cell divisions in the streptococci takes place in the singular axis as they grow. They do tend to grow from chains or pairs that lead to getting it twisted. It is quite different from Staphylococci.

Thus for the reason they do not have a specific shape and form mostly clusters looking like grapes. Most of these are catalase negative and is oxidase negative with many also being factitive anaerobes.

They are of firmicutes phylum, class being bacilli. They are of order lactobacillales and the genus refers to streptococcus. They are also responsible or many cases like the bacterial pneumonia, pink eye, the endocarditis and endocarditis.

Moreover, mostly all the species are not pathogenic and thus form a part of human commensal microbiota in the skin, intestine and mouth. They are also an essential in generation of Emmentaler.

Lactobacillus acidophilus

The lactobacillus acodophilus are the ones which are located in the intestine. They do produce lactic acid and are thus given its name.

They are the members of genre Lacto bacillus and so play a role in human health. This is done by generating an enzyme known as lactase. They balance their way of being good and bad.

They help in balancing out quote of the harmful bacteria that shall not else flourish inside the gut for any antibiotic or illness. They are also used in getting the flora of that vagina balance and also prevent any generation of any infection.

They are mostly found in yogurt and many of the fermented food with also being and preferred in the form of supplement. They are mostly found in the non-pathogenesis organism and few of the strains are made in use as probiotics to get oneself prevention of some diseases.

Streptococcus pyogenes

They can be also termed as group A streptococcus (GAS) and are facultative gram positive bacteria that occur in chains.

They are also said to cause many more infections in the humans that consists of tonsillitis, scarlet fever, rheumatic fever, cellulitis, necrotizing fasciitis and pharyngitis.

They also can many diseases that can be life threatening just like bacteremia, myonecrosis, pneumonia and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome.

They are also a global vital human pathogen that helps in causing a large variety of infections that are acute in nature like the pharyngitis and many other infections in the soft tissue.

They can spread via any direct contact with nose discharge and throat. Sometimes they also spread via any infected and exposed wounds or via any sores on skin. The risk of it is high while a person is ill or has an infected wound.

Sulfolobus acidocaldarius archaebacterium

Sulfolobus are the genre of microbes which form in the family of Sulfolobaceae. It belongs to the domain of archaea.

Sulfolobus species do grow in the volcanic springs with an optimal temperature of 75 to 80 degree Celsius and a ph. level of 2 and 3. It helps making them thermophiles and acidophilus in general.

They are found in mostly in the Yellowstone national park’s that is rich in sulphur. They occur in very high temperature and also in high numbers getting it attached with the surface of any sulphur crystals.

sul — Sulfolobus acidocaldarius archaebacteria- Wikipedia

Cell features of Prokaryotes

Some of the possession for the example of prokaryotic cell are-

Ribosome- They is used during the process of protein synthesis.
Nucleoid- It has the DNA and is the central area of the cell
Cell membrane– All prokaryotes have a cell membrane which is also called the plasma membrane. They help the cell separate themselves from the outside world.
Cytoplasm- they are the semi fluid inside the plasma membrane. The cell of the prokaryotes lack membrane covered organelles; they do contain some important features.
Mesosomes– They are the extensions of plasma in the cell that from the tubules or the lamella.
Glycocalyx– They are also called the slime layer and are mad eup of macromolecules and can be thick or loose.
Cell wall- Just for the outside world, cell wall helps give protection and maintains the structure. Mostly all examples of prokaryotic cell have a cell wall that is rigid which is made of proteins known as the peptidoglycans and carbohydrates.
Capsule- There are some bacteria that have in them a layer of carbohydrates which envelop the wall of cell and are called the capsule. This capsule helps the bacteria keep themselves attached with the surface.
Fimbriae– they are the thin like structure also are same like hair which are used by the bacteria with their cellular attachment.
Flagella– they are the tail like similar thin structures which help the organism in their movement. It has three parts, the filament, hook and the basal body.
Pili- It is the rod shaped bodies which are involved in many roles that also incudes the transfer of DNA and cell attachment.

FAQs-

Do the prokaryotes have mitochondria?

No, they have no mitochondria. They are just found in eukaryotes.

What cell features are same to both the type of cell?

Some of the features similar to both are DNA, ribosomes, cytoplasm and plasma membrane.

What is the ribosome type in prokaryotes?

These have the ribosome which are 70s and are made up subunits that are of smaller 30s and larger 50s. They occur in the groups that are called polysomes.

What is the basic difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell?

The basic difference lies in the fact that eukaryotic have a nucleus bounded with membrane but the prokaryotic ells do not.

Also Read:

Peptide bond examples:

Valine

Glucagon

Carnosine

Opthalmic acid

Oxytocin

Alanine

Glycine

Glutathione

Calcitonin

Amanitin

Anserine

Frequency of sound heard by animals

Frequency of musical instruments

Frequency of light

Frequency of sound

Frequency of red light

Frequency of radio-broadcasting

Frequency of radio waves

Frequency of medical instruments

Frequency of communication devices

The frequency used in microwaves

Frequency of electrical appliances

Frequency of gamma-ray used in cancer therapy

Frequency observed in mobile and cellular devices

Frequency of ultraviolet ray

Use of frequency in photosynthesis

The frequency used for satellite communication devices

Frequency of television remote

Use of frequency in detecting underwater objects

Use of frequency in aviation and air traffic

Frequency of military equipment

Frequency of a wave example of magnetic resonance imaging

Frequently Asked Questions on Frequency of a Wave | FAQs

What is the definition of frequency in physics?

Do all bodies have a specific frequency?

Why is frequency an essential term in physics?

Mention the different types of frequency ranges?

What is equilibrium?

Equation of equilibrium of forces

What is neutral equilibrium?

Neutral Equilibrium Example

A marble lying on a horizontal surface, undisturbed

Sliding a book on the table surface, the book comes in neutral equilibrium after coming to rest

A football lying on the ground

A car parked without handbrakes (no external force applied for it to remain stationary)

A roller lying stationary on a flat surface

Applying viscous cream on hands (for example sunscreen)

A flask lying on ground

Pushing a heavy box

Throwing a heavy object on floor, it comes to rest as soon as it lands on floor

Neutral equilibrium of floating bodies

What do you mean by stable equilibrium?

Is stable equilibrium and neutral equilibrium same?

What is unstable equilibrium?

Significance of equilibrium

Limiting Reactant Example

Formation of Ammonia

N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3

Respiration Reaction

C6H12O6 +6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Reaction between BaCl2 and AgNO3

BaCl2 + 2AgNO3 = 2AgCl + Ba(NO3)2

Oxidation of Magnesium

2Mg + O2 = 2MgO

Reaction between Sodium Peroxide with Water

2Na2O2 + 2H2O= 4NaOH + O2

Reaction between C2H3Br3 with oxygen

4 C2H3Br3 + 11 O2= 8CO2+ 6H2O + 6Br2

Oxidation of Cobalt oxide

4CoO+ O2 = 2Co2O3

Reaction between Silicon dioxide with H2F2

SiO2+ 2H2F2 =SiF4 +2 H2O

Combustion of Benzene

C6H6 (l)+ 15 O2 (g) = 12CO2 (g) + 6H2O(g)

Combustion of Ethylene

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g)= 2 CO2 (g) +2 H2O(g)

Oxidation of Ammonia

4NH3 (g) +5 O2 (g) = 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

Reaction between Fe2O3 with excess Carbon

C₆H₁₂O₆ +6O₂= 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy

Reaction between BaCl₂ and AgNO₃

BaCl₂+ 2AgNO₃= 2AgCl + Ba(NO₃)₂

2Mg + O₂ = 2MgO

2Na₂O₂ + 2H₂O= 4NaOH + O₂

Reaction between C₂H₃Br₃with oxygen

4 C₂H₃Br₃+ 11 O₂= 8CO₂+ 6H₂O + 6Br₂

4CoO+ O₂= 2Co₂O₃

Reaction between Silicon dioxide with H₂F₂

SiO₂+ 2H₂F₂=SiF₄+2 H₂O

C₆H₆(l)+ 15 O₂(g) = 12CO₂(g) + 6H₂O(g)

C₂H₄(g) + 3O₂(g)= 2 CO₂ (g) +2 H₂O(g)

4NH₃ (g) +5 O₂ (g) = 4NO(g) + 6H₂O(g)

Reaction between Fe₂O₃ with excess Carbon

Fe₂O₃+ 3C = 2Fe +3CO

C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁+ 12O₂= 12CO₂+ 11H₂O