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15 reflection of light examples: Detailed Insight And Facts

January 20, 2024January 23, 2022 by Raghavi Acharya

Reflection is an essential phenomenon in physics. This article will find out the different Reflection of light examples.

Reflection of light is a process that gives us the ability to look at the features around us. The joint Reflection of light examples of light around us differentiates the colors, images, camera, etc. The light waves undergo a specific process of laws of Reflection and finally reflect the image of the object to be observed.

In this article, we will study the various Reflection of light examples.

Reflection of light examples

The numerous Reflections of light examples that we find around us are below.

Mirror images
The image formed by Reflection through the spherical mirror
Reflection through headlights
Reflection through side mirror of vehicles
Reflection of the image in water bodies
Reflection through shoe polished surface
To observe various colors around us
Working of the camera through Reflection of light
Working of Microscopes through Reflection of light
Working of Telescopes through Reflection of light
Reflection of light on a polished rough surface
Reflection of light in formation of images through eyes
Shining of beautiful stars
Reflection observed in luminous bodies
Reflection of light observed in moon
Reflection observed in non-luminous bodies

Mirror images

The mirror images are one of the daily Reflection of light examples. We see our self-reflection in mirrors to know we look when we get ready to go out somewhere. This Reflection is possible when the light in the process of Reflection obeys the law of Reflection. The incident light rays hit an angle and reflected in the opposite direction in the same path. It leads to the formation of any image.

The image formed by Reflection through the spherical mirror

The term spherical makes us think about the three-dimensional circle shapes. The spherical mirror usually consists of a polished surface. Still, suppose you are curious to know how the Reflection happens when divided into two halves. In that case, we get the other two mirror types: the inner part will resemble a concave mirror, and the outer part of each half will resemble the convex.

Since the spherical mirror has a polished surface, the light incident on it gets reflected in the form of image; it seems almost the same as a plane mirror reflection, but there are some complications since it includes convex and concave.

Reflection through headlights

The mirrors through which headlights are designed are concave. Before knowing how a reflection from a concave type mirror is an example of Reflection of light, we have to know the characteristics.

The Reflection takes place similar to a plane mirror, and it has two surfaces, a polished and a stable surface. The outer part will be polished, and the inner one will be normal, so the Reflection takes place from any inner point of concave type objects. So as the light waves get incident on the inner part of concave headlights, it produces a reflection with satisfying the laws of Reflection.

Reflection through side mirror of vehicles

The side mirrors of the vehicles are mainly constructed using a convex lens material. The necessary characteristic of a concave mirror is that Reflection usually takes place from all the points of the outer part because it is not polished. At the same time, the inside surface does not reflect any light since it is polished. With the help of the reflection phenomenon, the side mirrors help us see the objects that are approaching.

Reflection of the image in water bodies

Whenever we go to a picnic near any water bodies, kids get excited to see their self-images in the water. The formation of images in the water bodies is possible due to the process of Reflection; a certain amount of light waves from us act as incident ray and approaches the water bodies. Here the light rays get reflected, leading to the formation images. The same phenomenon can be seen in any water source in a glass or large water body.

Reflection through shoe polished surface

Whenever a reflection occurs through a polished surface, it will satisfy the laws of Reflection. This shiny Reflection can be easily observed when you polish your shoes using a lubricant, the shiny surface through which we can see the images takes place due to the process of Reflection. Therefore, it is one of the best Reflection of light examples. The other polished surfaces are steel materials or any polished surfaces.

To observe various colors around us

We observe many colors around us, from the rainbow to small objects; everything is composed of different colors. These different colors are visible and observed with the reflection process’s help. The objects such as flowers, animals, insects, and birds emit particular light that gets Reflection back and helps in color formation on their body.

Working of the camera through Reflection of light

Nowadays, professional photography is one of the most economical jobs. The use of the camera to click beautiful pictures undergoes a process of Reflection to produce those images. There will be the presence of more minor inside a camera; when the incident light from the desired image falls on the lens, it gets reflected in producing the high quality of the image. Therefore, the camera’s work is an excellent Reflection of light examples.

Working of Microscopes through Reflection of light

The same principle of Reflection seen in the camera lens’s working is observed in microscopes. Even the microscope consists of a lens that helps produce the image required to be observed. The microscope is, in general, used in labs to observe many tiny creatures or phenomena in physics. The incident light from the slide of the image falls on the microscopic lens that reflects the image of the slide. It is an essential reflection of light examples seen in labs.

Working of Telescopes through Reflection of light

Telescopes are used to see far objects, and it is one of the best Reflection of light examples widely used in space laboratories—the same principle of Reflection that is seen in the working of the telescope lens. The telescope consists of lenses that help produce the image by undergoing multiple reflections that help observe the focused images. The incident light from the body of the image to be observed strikes on the lens present in the telescope, reflecting tit, producing a clear image.

Reflection of light on a polished rough surface

When an image is produced from any polished rough surface, we can ensure that the light rays have undergone Diffuse Reflection. Polishing makes the reflection rays inhibit and later emit properly, gradually increasing the scope for Reflection. The Reflection from these surfaces will be an authentic reflection of light examples.

Reflection of light in formation of images through eyes

The eyes are an essential body part for every human. Without eyes, it would not have been possible to grasp the beautiful environment around us. We cannot see any object or body in a very dark room due to the absence or lack of light sources. So, both light and eyes are interrelated, informing the images with the help of Reflection.
The reflection process in the eyes is explained as follows. When we see any object a certain amount of reflected light from, any material strikes the lens present in our eyes. It will lead to the formation of virtual and inverted images in the region of the retina.
The signal from the retina is transferred to the brain cell that leads to Hence formation of an image through eyes are fundamental Reflection of light examples.

Shining of beautiful stars

Stars are one of the beautiful creations of the universe, and we feel joy when we look at the pack of shining stars at night. We observe some discrimination when we notice that some stars shine brightly where the other stars will be diminished. The reason behind it is the intensity of reflected rays.

The stars generally come under the category of luminous bodies, and they will be generating their light. A certain amount of Reflection that strikes from the stars makes them visible.

These stars emit certain light rays into the space that will gradually come into the earth’s atmosphere; it will act as incident light that hits the earth’s surroundings and strikes back again to them, leading to the shining property of stars.

Reflection observed in luminous bodies

The main asset of the phenomenon of Reflection is considered in luminous bodies; they are the actual creatures that produce light and give it to non-luminous creatures. The primary examples of luminous bodies are stars, the sun, and the unique insect called fireflies.

These bodies produce light rays that fall on the non-luminous creatures. The incident beam ray falls on objects, and the obtaining of reflected rays leads to the formation of images. The other luminous bodies, such as a torch, lamp, candle, etc., are observed.

Reflection of Light observed in the moon

Moon is a significant celestial body that is very close both physically and emotionally in the mind of people. The beautiful moon is the best example of a non-luminous object. It has no light waves of its own, and it seeks light from the sun; this light is reflected through the moon to our eyes helps in getting the full image of the moon. The nature of Reflection seen here is diffuse since the surface on the moon have irregularities and is one of the vital Reflection of light examples of nature.

To know more: Diffuse Reflection

Reflection observed in non-luminous bodies

Reflection is also seen in non-luminous bodies; the unique feature of these bodies is that they don’t have the light of their own. But how these objects are visible is a question to think about. These bodies gain light rays from luminous bodies and gradually develop their light that undergoes reflection process, seeing them. The non-luminous bodies such as our earth, sheets, paper, plants, etc., are observed through this process.

These are some essential and precise reflections of light examples in nature.

Frequently Asked Questions | FAQs

What is the actual meaning of Reflection of light?

The phenomenon of Reflection of light signifies how everything around us is visible to us in different colors.

The meaning of Reflection also indicates that self-images are observed with the help of light. In this process, a particular beam of the incident called the initial wavefront of light strikes on a particular medium and comes back in the opposite direction with the same intensity. The light ray or wavefront that comes back in the opposite direction is reflected. Both the rays of light will be straight in nature.

Mention the different applications of Reflection of light?

The critical and different applications of Reflection of light examples that help in leading smooth life is as shown below,

Working of microscope
Working of telescope
Mirrors present in the vehicle
Working of Kaleidoscope
Torchlight
Street Light
Helps in identifying the minor mistakes using a microscope

What are the main aspects of the laws of Reflection?

The main aspects of laws of Reflection that must be satisfied by the beam of light wavefronts for proceeding the process of Reflection are mentioned below,

When any beam of light rays falls on a surface without irregularities, the angle at which light strikes the surface must always be equal to the angle at which it gets reflected, also known as a reflected ray.
All the three rays, the initial ray, the reflected ray, and the point at which both the rays strike and emit perpendicular called ordinary ray, always lie in the same plane.

What are the examples of good reflectors of light?

If the surface of the object produces a maximum reflection, then those materials are considered good reflectors of light. Some of the best reflectors of light are listed below,

Water sources
Mirrors (Plane, Spherical, concave, convex)
Steel metals
Shining surfaces
Glass
Light-colored materials

Also Read:

3 Isolated System Examples: Detailed Facts And FAQ

January 20, 2024January 13, 2022 by Riya Pandey

Thermodynamic-ally we can understand the isolated system as a system that does not allow any energy and matter from its surroundings.

Let us understand 3 isolated system examples:-

Head On Collision Of Two Cars
The Collision Of Balls On Billiards Table
Our Entire Universe
A Thermos Flask

Head On Collision Of Two Cars

We can see a car as an example of an isolated system because the car neither pushes it from inside nor on the opposite side. Let us understand through the example of two cars collision, which could be an excellent example of an isolated system.

isolated system examples — **Head-On Collision Of Cars** Image Credit: “Accident with two cars”orangesky3 CC BY 2.0

The two cars face friction while moving on-road and in their head-on collision. Here it is not an isolated system as an external force acts upon it. But if the friction is taken out of the scenario, then the system of two becomes an isolated system. This happens because the forces they face are canceled in their collision, and no external force acts.

As of now, there will be no exchange of heat or any energy and no exchange of matter. It becomes an isolated system.

The Collision Of Balls On Billiards Table

As we know, an isolated system is that there is no exchange of energy and matter from its surrounding. Let’s go through the following to examine the collision of two balls on the billiards table as an isolated system.

Screenshot 278 1 — **Collision Of Billiard Board Balls** Image Credit: “048/365 Bokeh Billiard”Lel4nd CC BY 2.0

In an isolated system, the collision between the billiards ball its momentum can be neglected as long its friction is nearly zero. By this, the forces which act upon them will only be due to the contact force between them as the frictional force is now negligible. Now, these forces between them are internal, with no external force, and energy is within them.

Hence, in the collision in billiards ball, too, there is no exchange of energy and matter. So we can say that it is an isolated system.

Our Entire Universe

For our universe to be an isolated system, it must complete the circumstances necessary to be called an isolated system which means no exchange of energy and matter.

Screenshot 276 2 — **Our Universe** Image Credit: “The Solar System” Kevin M. Gill CC BY 2.0

The universe has had no boundary, The total mass of the universe is constant, The total energy of the universe is constant, and the universe has no surroundings. By this, we can say that the universe fulfills all conditions needed to be called an isolated system. Hence universe is an isolated system.

A Thermos Flask

Thermo flask as an insulated system can be understood by knowing what a thermos flask is and how it is made.

A thermos flask can be assumed as a highly isolated flask in a vacuum. Mostly the thermos flask available is two-layer. A vacuum separates the innermost chamber within the glass layered with the outer chamber, where the outer chamber is made of either plastic or metals.

The glass in the flask is fringed with a reflective metal layer. The unbreakable flask, which we usually see, comprises two layers of stainless steel with vacuum and a reflective layer in it. The thermos flask also has a compact screw at the top.

These are the features of a thermos flask. Based on this, now let us know. How does it act as an isolated system? The above features are given of a flask, which prevents the flow of heat transfer. This is possible because of conduction, radiation, or convection.

As we know, the transfer of heat is possible through conduction, convection, and radiation from one body to another. The heat transfer through conduction happens when two bodies with distinguish body temperature come into contact. Whereas convection happens in fluids, say gases and liquids. Here in convection, the heat is transferred through the movement of the particles of the fluid itself from one place to another. Lastly, the heat is transferred through the radioactive particles in the radiation, and they do not require a medium.

As mentioned above that, the flask has a vacuum. The vacuum present in the flask does not allow heat transfer through conduction. At the same time, the screw on the top used for compacting the flask does not allow heat transfer through convection as the motion of fluids particles is restricted through it. The reflective lining on the thermos flask in its inner chamber does not allow any radiation from the hot liquid to transmit. Due to this, thermos flask is also preventive towards heat transfer by radiation.

There is no way to dissipate heat from the flask with these thermos flask features. And the thermos flask is used for keeping a fluid hot for an extended period. And the product stored in the flask remains hot for several hours. Instead of putting any material in a thermos flask to keep the product in the flask hot for long hours. A vacuum is created between two inner lining inside it, which do not allow any heat to dissipate.

Screenshot 282 2 — **A Thermoflask** Image Credit: “Water Bottles” Worlds Direction CC0 1.0

From the above-given procedure, we understand that the thermos flask does not allow heat transfer between the hot fluid inside and the cold air in its surroundings. The insulation provided in the flask is why there is no heat transfer, and this is the only principle on which the thermos flask works.

By this, we understood that a thermos flask does not allow any energy or matter from its surrounding by the given principle. This is the cause behind saying a thermos flask is an isolated system.

Also Read:

9+ Ionic Bond Examples: Explanation And Detailed Facts

January 21, 2024January 5, 2022 by Smruti Bhosale

In this article, we are going to see what is an ionic bond, its characteristics, facts along with some ionic bond examples in detail.

When the attractive force binds unlike ions together then this is known as an ionic bond. An ionic bond is also termed an electrovalent bond. Compounds having this type of bonding are called ionic compounds. Some examples are given as follows.

Sodium Chloride NaCl
Sodium Bromide NaBr
Sodium Fluoride NaF
Potassium Chloride KCl
Potassium Iodide KI
Potassium Bromide KBr
Potassium Fluoride KF
Lithium Iodide LiI
Lithium Oxide Li₂O
Calcium oxide CaO

Some elements of the periodic table could acquire a noble gas configuration by losing or gaining electrons. Those elements that lose an electron and acquire a positive charge are called cations, while those that gain an electron and acquire a negative charge are called anions.

AB A⁺ + B^–A is a cation with a positive charge and B is an anion with a negative charge.

Characteristics

An ionic bond is also termed an electrovalent bond.
A strong electrostatic force of attraction held Positive and Negative ions together.
Ionic compounds are hard and brittle.
Usually have e high melting point.
In the solid-state ionic compounds is a bad conductor of electricity while they are a good conductor of electricity when melted or dissolved in solvents.
Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents and insoluble in non-polar solvents.
Ionic bond forms between metal and non-metal.

Ionic Bond Examples

Sodium Chloride NaCl

Sodium Chloride, Sodium atom has 1 valence electron and Chlorine atom has 7 valence electrons. Chlorine atom need one electron to complete its octet. Na atom loses its electron and acquires a positive charge while Chlorine atom gains an electron and acquires a negative charge. Hence Na and Cl form an ionic bond.

ionic bond example — **Fig 1: Sodium Chloride NaCl**

Image Credits: Cloudfront

Sodium Bromide NaBr

In Sodium Bromide, the Sodium atom has one electron in its valence shell and the Bromine atom has 7 electrons. Na loses one electron which is gained by Br to complete its octet. Ionic compound NaBr is formed.

Image Credits: Study

Sodium Fluoride NaF

In Sodium Fluoride NaF, to complete octet state Fluorine atom need only 1 electron, which is given by the sodium atom. Na acquires positive [Na]⁺and F acquire negative charge [F]^–, forming an ionic bond.

Image Credits: Studiousguy

Potassium Chloride KCl

In Potassium Chloride KCl, the Potassium atom has one electron in its valence shell and the Chlorine atom has seven electrons. Chlorine atom need one electron to complete its octet state. K loses its electron and becomes positively charged by gaining this electron Cl becomes negatively charged. The Formation Ionic bond takes place between K and Cl.

Image Credits: Blogspot

Potassium Iodide KI

In Potassium Iodide KI, the Iodine atom has seven valence electrons in its valence shell to get its octet state complete, it requires one electron. Potassium loses one electron, acquires a positive charge while iodine takes this electron and acquires a negative charge forming an ionic bond.

Image Credits: Chem.libretexts

Potassium Bromide KBr

In Potassium Bromide KBr, Potassium has 1 electron in its valence shell whereas Bromine has seven electrons. Hence K loses its electron becomes K⁺ and Br gains this electron becomes Br^–. The ionic bond formed between K and Br.

Image Credits: Study

Potassium Fluoride KF

In Potassium Fluoride KF, the Fluorine atom has seven electrons and the Potassium atom has one electron in its valence shell. To get a stable configuration Fluorine needed one electron. Potassium transfers its valence electron to Fluorine forming an ionic bond.

Image Credits: Slideplayer

Lithium Iodide LiI

In this ionic compound, the Iodine atom has seven electrons in its valence shell to complete its stable electronic configuration it requires one electron. Lithium has a valency of one electron. Li loses its electron acquires a positive charge and by gaining of electron I acquire a negative charge.

Image Credits: Gstatic

Lithium Oxide Li₂O

In Lithium Oxide Li₂O, Each Lithium has one electron in its outermost shell and oxygen has six electrons. To attain an octet state oxygen need two electrons. Both lithium atoms lose electrons becomes positively charged while oxygen gains those electrons and becomes negatively charged. The ionic bond formed.

Image Credits: Socratic

Calcium Oxide CaO

In Calcium oxide, Calcium has two valence electrons while oxygen has six valence electrons in its valence shell. To complete its octet oxygen requires two more electrons. Calcium loses its electrons and acquires +2 charge and oxygen gains those electrons, acquires 2- charge.

Image Credits: Gstatic

Read on: 15 Coordinate Covalent Bond Examples: Detailed Insight And Facts

Frequently Asked Questions:

Question: Is CaCl₂ an ionic compound?

Answer: The CaCl₂ is an ionic compound,

In CaCl₂, Calcium has two valence electrons and each Chlorine has one electron. Ca loses both the electrons which are gained by each Cl and complete its octet. Calcium acquires +2 while each Chlorine acquires -1 charged. Due to this unlike charges ionic bond formed in the CaCl₂ compound.

Question: What is an ionic bond?

Answer: Ionic bond is defined as

When the attractive force binds unlike ions together then this is known as an ionic bond. An ionic bond is also termed an electrovalent bond.

Question: What are the differences between ionic and covalent bonds?

Answer: The difference between ionic and covalent bonds :

Ionic bond	Covalent bond
When the attractive force binds unlike ions together then this is known as an ionic bond.	When two atoms get stabilized by sharing of electrons then this is known as a covalent bond.
Forms between electropositive and electronegative atoms.	Forms between the same or different atoms.
It is a non-directional bond.	It is a directional bond.
Has high melting and boiling points.	Has low melting and boiling points.
Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents and insoluble in non-polar solvents.	Covalent compounds are insoluble in polar solvents and soluble in non-polar solvents.

Also Read:

Molecules Active Transport Examples: With Explanations

January 20, 2024January 2, 2022 by Trisha Dey

In biological terms, active transport indicates the movement of molecules in the opposite direction of the concentration gradient.

In cells, most molecules must travel across a membrane. This very movement of molecules from lower to higher concentration regions by using a transporter or energy is referred to as active transport.

Here we will discuss the following Molecules Active Transport Examples which include:

Sodium-Potassium Pump
Calcium pump
Proton pump
Sodium-Glucose Transport Protein
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis
Multidrug ABC transporters
Sodium-calcium antiporter

Active transport requires the solvent molecules to move across the membrane which is not possible without some help. This help is usually is nothing but utilization of energy in the form of ATP. Even among them, active transport can be of 3 types-primary active transport, secondary active transport and bulk active transport.

SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP

Also known as Na+/K+ -ATPase or simple the Na+/K+ pump is actually an enzyme that is the most commonly known example for active transport.

Animal cells need sodium and potassium gradients across the plasma membrane for a range of purposes, and the variation of demands necessitates that the ion pump in charge, the Na+/K+ -ATPase, be fine-tuned to the many cellular needs.

Function: Functions include working as cell transducers and controlling cell signaling in neurons.

CALCIUM PUMP

Calcium pumps are a kind of ion transporter found in all animal cells’ cellular membranes. They are in charge of maintaining the high Ca2+ electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane by actively transporting calcium out of the cell.

Calcium pumps are essential in cell signaling as they keep intracellular calcium concentrations 10,000 times lower than extracellular calcium concentrations.

Function: When a stimulus signal opens the Ca2+ channels in the membrane, these pumps are required to create the steep electrochemical gradient that permits Ca2+ to flood into the cytosol. Pumps are also required to actively pump Ca2+ out of the cytoplasm and restore the cell’s pre-signal condition.

PROTON PUMP

A proton pump is an integral membrane protein pump that builds up a proton gradient across a biological membrane. Proton pumps catalyze the following reaction:

H⁺[from one side of a biological membrane] + energy ⇌ H⁺[to the other side of the membrane]

Function: In the stomach’s parietal cells, the proton pump (H+/K+-ATPase) is the primary mechanism for acid secretion, and inhibiting the pump nearly totally stops acid production.

SODIUM-GLUCOSE TRANSPORT PROTEIN

The activity of the sodium-glucose cotransporter (SGLT) facilitates sodium and glucose transport through cell membranes at the apical level. Active removal of sodium by the sodium/potassium-ATPase present in the basal epithelial cells is what drives cotransport.

This facilitates glucose absorption against an internal uphill (i.e from lower to higher concentration) gradient.

Functions: ATP molecules are used by the protein to send three sodium ions outside into the bloodstream while bringing in two potassium ions. The proximal tubule cell of the nephron develops a sodium ion gradient from the outside to the inside as a result of this process.

PINOCYTOSIS

Pinocytosis is a kind of endocytosis that involves fluids that include a large number of solutes. This mechanism happens in cells lining the small intestine in humans and is largely employed for fat droplet absorption.

molecules-active-transport-examples — **A simple depiction of how pinocytosis works**
**Image: Wikipedia**

The cell plasma membrane expands and folds around desired extracellular material during endocytosis, generating a pouch that pinches off to create an internalised vesicle.

Function: Pinocytosis is largely utilised to remove extracellular fluids (ECF) like fat droplets and as a monitor for the immune system.

PHAGOCYTOSIS

Phagocytosis is the process by which phagocytes, or living cells, swallow or engulf other cells(both internal and pathogenic) or particles.

Cells like neutrophils, macrophages, monocytes, eosinophils and some more are what are called professional phagocytes.

0309 Phagocytosis — Depiction of phagocytosis
Image: Wikipedia

Function: In higher animals, phagocytosis is mostly a defensive response to infection and invasive foreign materials.

MULTIDRUG ABC TRANSPORTERS

Also called anti-bacterial ATP-Binding Cassette transporters, antibiotic resistance processes are plagued by multidrug efflux transporters, which provide bacteria with the ability to avoid most existing medicines.

Even though these transporters were first thought of as proton-pumps, another class of multidrug efflux transporters powered by ATP hydrolysis developed in the mid-’90s by evolution or mutation.

This novel family of transporters was part of one of the most diverse protein families, the ABC transporters, which regulate the entry and efflux of a wide range of chemicals.

Function: They allow bacteria to resist existing antibacterial drugs that could kill them.

SODIUM-CALCIUM ANTIPORTER

To simply put antiports are exchangers, so Sodium-Calcium antiporter is also simply put as Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger that removes excess calcium from cells.

Porters — **A comparison of transport proteins Image: Wikipedia**

In the heart Na⁺/Ca²⁺-antiporter moves 3 Na+ across the plasma membrane in exchange for a single Ca²⁺ moving them in the opposite direction. It is prominently present in the myocardial cells, skeletal cells, neural cells and nephrons.

Function: They are in charge of controlling -neurosecretion, photoreceptor cell activity, and heart muscle relaxation. They are also responsible for maintaining Ca²⁺ concentrations in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of cardiac cells, Ca²⁺ concentrations in the endoplasmic reticulum of excitable and non-excitable cells, and low Ca²⁺ concentrations in the mitochondria.

Even though these transporters are nothing but small protein molecules they are responsible for making sure every organ and tissue works flawlessly. Thereby they make sure all the cell machinations work without any kinks.

As we grow older a lot of these transporters cannot function properly leading to systems imbalances. Hence they are essential to make sure all organisms can function to their full potential.

Also Read:

15 Coordinate Covalent Bond Examples: Detailed Insight And Facts

January 21, 2024December 30, 2021 by Smruti Bhosale

In this article we are going to see what is a coordinate covalent bond, its characteristics are facts along with some coordinate covalent bond examples in detail.

During the bond formation sharing of electron pair takes place by only one atom, it is called a coordinate covalent bond. Only one atom in a molecule shares both the electrons to form a bond. This type of bonding is seen in following examples.

Ammonium boron trifluoride NH₃→BF₃
Ammonium ion NH₄⁺
Formation of Hydronium ion H₃O⁺
Tetrafluroboron BF₄^–
Formation of Aluminium chloride AlCl₆
Sulphur dioxide SO₂
Sulphur trioxide SO₃
Sulphuric acid H₂SO₄
Nitrogen pentaoxide N₂O₅
Nitromethane
Hexammine cobalt(lll) chloride
Hexaaquo cobalt (ll) chloride Co(H2O)₆
Tetracarbonyl nickel Ni(Co)₄
Hexaaquo Aluminium (lll)
Ozone

The coordinate covalent bonds are also entitled as a dipolar bond or dative bond. In a coordinate covalent bonding, both electrons are shared by an individual atom, another one is the electron acceptor. Denoted by arrow ‘→’, pointing towards atom who accepts electrons.

A → B A gives electron pair or two electrons, termed as Donor atom

B accepts electron pair or electrons, termed as Acceptor atom.

The coordinate covalent bond differs from a covalent bond only in the way it is formed, once formed it is exactly like a covalent bond. The coordinate covalent bond may form when one of the combining atoms has an unused lone pair of electrons besides its completed octet.

Characteristics

Electron pair or both the electrons of a bond given by only one atom.
Also called dipolar bond or dative bond.
Coordinate covalent bonds are shown as ‘→‘.
Compounds containing this type of bonding are called coordinate covalent compounds.
Sharing of electrons leads to the stabilization of all the atoms.
The donor atom acquires a slight positive charge and a slight negative charge acquired by the acceptor atom.

Coordinate Covalent Bond Examples

Formation of Ammonium boron trifluoride NH₃→BF₃

In the NH₃ molecule, Nitrogen has 5 electrons in its valence shell. N has a complete octet by the formation of three bonds with three hydrogen atoms. But it is still left with a pair of unused electrons. This lone pair of electrons may be donated to the B atom in BF₃, which is electron-deficient forming a coordinate covalent bond. Due to this Boron atom also completes its octet.

Coordinate Covalent Bond Examples — Figure 1: **Ammonium boron trifluoride NH₃→BF₃**

Image credits : Wikipedia

Formation of Ammonium ion NH₄⁺

In the NH₃molecule, the Nitrogen atom has lone pair of electrons after completing its octet. This lone pair of electrons share with the H⁺ ion of HCl. The coordinate covalent bond formed between N and H, which leads to the formation of Ammonium ion NH4⁺.

Image Credits: Staticflickr

Formation of Hydronium ion H₃O⁺

During the formation of hydronium ions, water molecules act as donor atoms. The oxygen atom present in H2O has lone pair of electrons which is used to form a coordinate covalent bond with the hydrogen atom present in HCl.

Image Credits: Brainkart

Formation of tetrafluroboron BF₄^–

Fluorine atoms share lone pair of electrons with Boron. Fluorine act as a donor atom and boron act as an acceptor. The formation of tetrafluroboron takes place by a coordinate covalent bond.

Image Credits: Redchemistry

Formation of Aluminium chloride AlCl₆

Aluminium has three electrons in its valence shell, hence it forms three bonds with Chlorine. Chlorine has 7 electrons from which one is used for bond formation rest act as lone pair. Chlorine share one lone pair of electrons with another aluminium atom forming a coordinate covalent bond.

Image Credits: Redchemistry

Sulphur dioxide SO₂

In sulphur dioxide molecule sulphur has 6 valence electrons hence act as donor atom and oxygen acts as an acceptor. Sulphur form a double bond with one of the oxygen and shares one lone pair with other oxygen.

Image Credits: Redchemistry

Sulphur trioxide SO₃

After the formation of a double bond with oxygen, Sulphur shares two lone pairs of electrons with two oxygen atoms by a coordinate covalent bond.

Image Credits: Redchemistry

Sulphuric acid H₂SO₄

Sulphur present in sulphuric acid forms two coordinate covalent bonds with two different oxygen atoms. Sulphur has two lone pairs.

Image Credits: gstatic.com

Nitrogen pentaoxide N₂O₅

Nitrogen has 5 electrons in its valence shell, out of which three electrons are used to form one single and one double bond with oxygen. The remaining electrons act as lone pairs. This lone pair was utilized to form a coordinate covalent bond with the oxygen atom.

Image Credits: encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com

Nitromethane

In nitromethane, Nitrogen atoms form coordinate covalent bonds with oxygen atoms. Nitrogen forms a double bond with one oxygen and a single bond with a carbon atom of the methyl group and completes its octet.

Image Credits: Brainkart

Hexammine Cobalt (lll) chloride Co(NH3)₆Cl₃

In Hexammine Cobalt (lll) chloride complex, Six Nitrogen atoms of the ligand, Ammonia NH3 shares lone pair of electrons with central metal Cobalt.

Image Credits: Wikipedia

Hexaaquo cobalt (ll) chloride Co(H₂O)₆Cl₂

In Hexaaquo cobalt (ll) chloride, Six water H₂O molecules are the ligands, act as donor atoms. Central metal atom Cobalt act as an acceptor atom. The oxygen atom of H₂O has lone pair of electrons that share with Cobalt forming a coordinate covalent bond.

Image Credits: encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com

Tetracarbonyl Nickel Ni(CO)₄

In Tetracarbonyl Nickel, Ni acts as acceptor, and CO acts as a donor atom. Four oxygen atoms of ligand share lone pair with Nickel forming a coordinate covalent bond.

Image Credits: Wikimedia

Hexaaquo Aluminium (lll)

In this complex, the oxygen atoms of H₂O shares lone pair with the central metal atom Aluminium.

Image Credits: Chemguide

Ozone

The oxygen atom has 6 electrons in its valence shell. Two electrons are utilized to form a double bond with one oxygen and one lone pair is used to form a coordinate covalent bond with another oxygen.

Image Credits: Redchemistry

Read on :SN2 Examples: Detailed Insights And Facts

Frequently asked questions:

1)Question: What is meant by a dative bond?

Answer: Dative bond is defined as

During the bond formation sharing of electron pair takes place by only one atom, it is called a coordinate covalent bond. Also called dipolar bond or dative bond.

2)Question: What are the differences between coordinate and covalent bonds?

Answer: Difference between a coordinate and covalent bond

Coordinate bond	Covalent bond
Only one atom in a molecule shares both the electrons to form a bond.	Both the atoms of the molecule share electrons to form a bond.
A minimum of one lone pair of electrons is required.	It does not require any lone pair of electrons.
Should not have unpair electrons	Should have unpair electrons
Empty orbital should be present in the acceptor atom.	Empty orbital does not require.
It is a polar bond.	It may be polar or non-polar depending on atoms forming a bond.
Represented by arrow →	Represented by a dash –

3) Question: Is the coordinate bond directional?

Answer: Coordinate bond is directional,

The coordinate bond form when both the electrons are shared by only one atom, the donor atom hence coordinate bond is directional. Also represented by an arrow → pointing towards the acceptor atom.

Also Read:

3+ nonpolar covalent bond examples: Detailed Insights And Facts

January 20, 2024December 30, 2021 by Sania Jakati

In this article, we shall see 4 nonpolar covalent bond examples.

Nitrogen (N₂)

As we know Nitrogen is discovered by the renowned scientist Daniel Rutherford ( year 1772) . He obtained it by removing carbon dioxide from the products of breathing animals in closed space.

Occurrence

Elementary nitrogen constitutes three-fourths of air by mass or four-fifths by volume. Also found in KNO3 form ( quite abundant) , NaNO3various salts of ammonia. As we know Nitrogen is a very crucial element for us either we take it directly or indirectly. By plants or animals as source .

nonpolar covalent bond examples — **nonpolar covalent** **bond examples**
**Image Credit : Chemspider**

Preparation of Nitrogen

Nitrogen is conveniently prepared in the laboratory by the following methods :

(a) By heating a Solution containing Ammonium and Nitrite Ions

A solution containing equivalent amounts of ammonium chloride and sodium nitrite is warmed in a round bottom flask fitted with a thistle funnel and delivery tube. Nitrogen gas is evolved and is collected over water.

(b) By Oxidation of Ammonia.

Nitrogen is also obtained by oxidation of ammonia with red hot copper oxide or chlorine. In each case hydrogen is removed and nitrogen set free.

Nitrogen is also formed in a number of other reactions, the more important of which are given below :

(i)Ammonium dichromate ( usually red color crystals ) when are heated give out light ( flashes) and thus required substance is formed ( Nitrogen is left behind.

The reaction is employed for the demonstration of the eruption of volcano. For this purpose, a heap of ammonium dichromate is ignited by touching the top with a hot wire (volcano experiment).

(ii) Nitrogen is also evolved when urea is heated with an acidified solution of a nitrite.

(iii) In the presence of an alkali, sodium hypobromite, NaOBr, liberates nitrogen from ammonium salts or urea.

(iv) Very pure nitrogen is obtained by heating sodium azide, NaN₃, when it decomposes into its elements.

Process.

Carbon dioxide is compressed ( at 200 atm pressure) after that it is cooled by the process of passing it through a pipe which is surrounded by water ( cold ) . This air(which is cold as well as compressed) is made to pass through spiral followed by Joule- Thomsan effect.

This cool air passes up surroundings the spiral pipe and cooling down the coming air there in. This cooled air passes up surrounding the spiral pipe the coming air therein. Furtehr cooling takes place by expansion. The upgoing air is compressed once again and recirculated.

Nitrogen and oxygen are manufactured by the fractional evaporation of this liquid air by Claude’s process given below :

Claude’s Process, Principle

When a cold compressed gas is allowed to do some external work, e.g., pushing the piston of a gas engine (adiabatic expansion), it falls in temperature (cf. Joule-Thomson effect where in work is done against intermolecular forces).

Process.

Air is filtered to remove dust particles and compressed to about 60 atmospheres all above. It is cooled to remove the heat generated on compression. The compressed air is freed from carbon dioxide by passing through a tower packed with soda-lime and then dried by passing through alumina driers. It is next passed through pipes surrounded by cold nitrogen or cold oxygen in heat exchanger.

The cold compressed air is allowed to do work in Claude’s expansion engine when it is partially liquified. High operating pressure of the order of 140-150 is used, and air at 150 atmospheres and 248 K is expanded in this way to 6 atmospheres and 103 K when it is partially liquified.

The partially liquified air is passed through a double rectification column. In the lower column, the fraction of air not previously liquified and from the liquid air at the base rise up. These gases are richer in nitrogen, i.e., the more volatile constituent.

As the upgoing gases pass into the closed space and are forced to move down through the outer pipes surrounded by liquid oxygen, nitrogen being at 6 atmospheres condenses. Some of this liquid nitrogen is removed from here and used.

The rest passes through an expansion valve and expands to 1-atmosphere pressure. Liquid nitrogen is poured at the top of the upper column. Liquid air at the base containing about 40% oxygen is also expanded to 1 atmosphere and poured near the middle of the upper column.

As the liquid falls down the fractionating column, it meets an upward stream of gases. The liquid is warmed a little as it is coming down and loses more and more of volatile constituent, nitrogen, by evaporation and gets richer and richer in oxygen. After this process the required quality (purity) Nitrogen can be obtained.

Read more about : Alkyl Halide Examples: Detailed Insights And Facts

Nitrogen Tetroxide

It is very crucial ( substance) for preparing many other compounds .

Preparation:

It can be prepared by the oxidation process (catalytic) of the compound ammonia. In the step one of preparation, oxidation of ammonia nitric (oxide) takes place.

The water in it (almost all of it) is condensed, the gases present are cooled. The obtained nitric (oxide) is now oxidized, giving out nitrogen dioxide; after this dimerization process of this obtained nitrogen dioxide takes place, giving us the desired compound nitrogen tetroxide.

Another way for preparation is by using arsenious acid (which is in the hydrated form is used) kept in tabulated (which is in the bent neck form), and nitric (acid) is added to it. This particular mixture is warmed (slightly).

The gas that is evolved is made to pass in a bottle (wash bottle) which is later dried by using calcium nitrate (which is in the anhydrous form). The entire mixture is cooled, giving us a green (dark shade) liquid, to which dry oxygen gas is pumped (in an appropriately sealed tube)—finally giving out the required product.

Properties

Its appearance is a red-brown color (usually liquid) with not so good smell.
It has quite a low boiling point (recorded at about 21.15 degrees Celsius), sharp melting point (recorded at about 11.8 degrees F)
The nitrogen tetroxide molecule is planar in nature (the N-N bond length recorded to be 1.78 Å, and the N-O bond length recorded at about 1.19A degrees)
It is diamagnetic in nature (with no unpaired electrons).

Uses.

Nitrogen tetroxide has the ability to undergo autoionization (molecular). Many anhydrous metal (that of transition) complexes (having nitrate) are prepared:

The preparation of metal (nitrates) using N2O4 is carried out in anhydrous (condition).

Being an oxidizing agent, N2O4 is very crucial and is used in rocket propellants as it can be kept at room temperature without any hustle.

Read More about : SN1 Examples: Detailed Insights And Facts

Dinitrogen Difluoride

It was discovered in the year 1952.
It has the ability to exist in the cis and trans form.

Preparation:

The reaction of N, N – disfluorourea, and potassium hydroxide (concentrated solution) gives Dinitrogen Difluoride (reaction is carried out in aqueous)

One more method is the reaction of difluoramine and potassium fluoride (note that difluoramine is said to give a solid compound which is unstable in nature) upon the process of decomposition gives the required product, i.e., dinitrogen difluoride. (In place of potassium fluoride, we can also use rubidium or cesium fluoride as a substitute.

One more method by the process of photolysis (using tetrafluorohydrogen with bromine).

It can be prepared by reacting N2O4 with a mixture (metal carbonyls and carbon monoxide) at a temperature of 175 degrees Celsius.

Properties

It is a colorless gas at a recorded molar mass of 66.01 g/mol and has a density of 2.698g/L.

Its observed melting point is -319.0 degrees F and -172 degrees Celsius for cis and Trans types of structure, respectively.

Its observed boiling point is -158.35 degrees F and -111.45 degrees Celsius for cis and Trans type structure, respectively.

Isomerism:

The symmetry of the cis form is C2V, and that of the trans form is said to be C2h. The isomers are observed to be interconvertible (by the thermal process).

The cis and trans form are separable by fractionation (carried out at quite a low temperature).

The Trans form of nitrogen difluoride is recorded to be less stable (in terms of thermodynamics), and it is possible to store it in a glass vessel.

About the reactivity of cis form of nitrogen, difluoride is it has the potential to attack glass in time (of two weeks) and (gives silicon tetrafluoride + nitrous oxide)

Nitrate: (NO3- )

It is considered a polyatomic ion, and the salts comprising this particular ion are referred to as nitrates.

opo nitr — **Image Credit : Fisher Scientific**

Preparation:

-Nitric acid is a vital component in the preparation of nitrate.

-Also naturally occurring as nitratine in the earth (deposits).

-Are prepared by considering sources of nitrogen (ammonia or urea) by bacteria (nitrifying) available in nature.

-By the process of fermentation (of urine and dung)

-When lightning strikes the earth’s surface (in nitrogen-oxygen) rich atmosphere, a whole lot of oxides is produced later washed by rain from the atmosphere.

Detection

It can be detected by the method of colorimetry. Usually, estimation/detection is based on the diazotization process involving naphtylamine. Nitrates under acidic conditions diazotize sulphanilamide to occur and product coupled with N-1-naphthyl etheylinediamine dihydrochloride. (Note the first nitrate is converted into nitrate form).

Uses:

Used in many fertilizers (in the agro-industry).
Being great oxidization agents used in explosives
What effects can nitrates have on our bodies?

As we know, nitrates are an essential part of our diet, but everything has to be within limits. If it is too much, or too less, both ways, it can harm us.

If we consider drinking water, the standard amount of nitrate tolerable in water is 10mg/l. Above this can pose to be dangerous.

Problems:

Which of the above substance occurs in isomer form ?

Ans Dinitrogen Difluoride

Which compound can be prepared by following Claude’s process? and Which of the above mentioned compound has the ability to undergo autoionization ?

Ans Nitrogen and Nitrogen Tetroxide

Also Read:

Photoautotrophic Bacteria Examples: Exhaustive Insights

January 20, 2024December 29, 2021 by ANKITA CHATTOPADHYAY

Bacteria are the single celled species that are present in millions of numbers and are always microscopic.

The substances are getting to use up their light as a source of energy. The photosynthetic or the green plants bacteria are the photoautotrophs. Some of the photoautotrophic bacteria examples are-

Euglena
Algae
Higher plants
Bacteria
FAPs (Filamentous anoxygenic phototrophs)

The holophytic species are usually in common referred to as photoautotrophic. They are known to derive their energy for synthesis of food from the sun source. They are also able to use carbon dioxide as the basic source if the carbon.

The autotrophic bacteria are the simple prokaryotes that shall get their carbon needs by getting the inorganic sources biosynthesized. They are the part if the dominant species that are involved in the natural cycling matter.

Photosynthetic autotrophic bacteria examples

The photoautotrophs are for sure capable of getting their own food synthesized from all the inorganic substances.

The photoautotrophic bacteria are the one that are capable of making the use of sun light to. Some of the photoautotrophic bacteria examples are the purple sulphur, green sulphur, purple non sulphur and more.

There is a photosynthetic pigment which is called the bacteriochlorophyll that is just like the chlorophylls in the plants. These bacteria use up the rays of sun to generate energy.

Euglena

These are the genus under for single cell eukaryotes with flagella. They are quite widely known.

Euglena is one among the good photoautotrophic bacteria examples that are widely studied from the class Euglenoidea. This is quite of a diverse group and has 54 general into them.

There is a minimum of 800 species and its species are mostly found in salt water or the fresh water. These are mostly abundant in the inlands that help them to bloom in good summers to cover the water surface in red or green. The species of Euglena gracilis has been used much in laboratory.

Mostly the species here have the chloroplasts that are photosynthesizing inside the cell body that enables them for autotrophy just like plants. They can also complete there nourishment heterotrophically like the animals. Thus they have features for both plants and animals.

They were the first ones to be seen under microscope and the sample for it was collected from the lake that was green in the center and white otherwise.

Due to Euglena having both the features of animal and plants, it was difficult for the taxonomists to get into its classification and thus was kept in unclassified. They reproduce via the mode of binary fission beginning with mitosis and then getting itself into cell division.

photoautotrophic bacteria examples — **Euglena**– Wikipedia

Algae

These are said to be the group for the basic aquatics that has nucleus and are photosynthetic along with lacking of roots.

They also lack stems, leaves and many other special functional multicellular structures for the purpose of reproduction that are in plants. Algae are sometimes regarded to be protists and sometimes plants.

Most of the algae are seem to be harmless and are also considered vital for the ecosystem. There are some of its kinds that do release toxins and thus can be harmful to both plants and animals. The place where the harmful algae grow fast and collect in the aquatic place is called harmful algae bloom.

Algae are mostly classified to be green in colour but still are also found in my other variety of hues. The colour of the algae depends on its type and in also some of the cases the way they ought to grow. Seaweeds are also a type of algae.

Some of the much known types of fishes like the Tangs and the Blennies along with the snails, the sea urchins and the crabs to consume the algae. They are also known to eat the red slime algae, the hair ones, the diatoms, microalgae.

Higher plants

They usually are given the names for and plants or the embryophyta and certainly are the good photoautotrophic bacteria example.

The higher plants are the most general types of vegetation on the planet that covers the green on Earth. They are just not concerned with plants but also have a clan that has green algae.

The very term higher plants can be used for all the plants that are said to be planted. It shall include the trees, the herbs that flowers, the fern and its relatives, the tress and the shrubs.

The embryophytes are said to be the land plants for they live mostly in the terrestrial parts while the green algae are generally aquatic. They do are complex being the multicellular eukaryotes and have special organs for reproduction.

There is an absolute difference between plants and algae which is indicated to the composition of cell. Algae can be said to be multicellular and unicellular species while the plants can be only unicellular. Another difference spotted can be that plants do have the vascular anatomies but algae do not.

There can be many similarities between the two of them. Both of them have chlorophyll a and b and the similar carotenoids with algae having many more on addition to it for itself. Both of them store carbohydrates in the form of starch and both are special water plants.

Bacteria

Bacteria are usually the organism that are single cell and are microscopic existing in millions of forms in all environments.

The place for bacterial survival can be both in and outside of the organisms. Some bacteria can be useful, some harmful but mostly serve good.

They do also support many other life forms being both animal and plants and serve their use for the purpose in the field of medicine and industry. They are absolute photoautotrophic bacteria examples for they form a great domain among the prokaryotes.

They are not great in size but just few of the micrometers in the length but are believed to be one among all the first life shapes that did appear on the planet and are also placed in many habitats. These are the creatures that are dominant and have been there for three quarters on the Earth.

They are the ones to have no membrane closed nucleus and all other structures within and are thus said to among the unicellular life forms called the prokaryotes. They do display a lot of metabolism and use just organic compounds as food intake.

Some of the bacteria are the symbionts of the invertebrates and the plants that carry vital host functions like degradation of cellulose and the fixation of nitrogen. If bacteria were nil, there will be no fertile soul and the decay process would be a stop or slow.

FAPs (Filamentous anoxygenic phototrophs)

These are the certain range of phototrophs that have evolutionary significance. They are said to ideal for hot springs.

The best common example for this kind is the thermophiles Chloroflexus aurantiacus. For a photoautotroph to be anoxygenic means to be involved in no production of oxygen.

The reason for its diving into the best fit for hot springs is that it forms a deep classification in the eubacteria descendants and also has a good combination of the elements found in other several and diverse group of prokaryotes that are phototrophic.

The Filamentous anoxygenic phototrophs are quite colorful and are shaped with the cyanobacteria. These do differ from the phototrophs phylogenetically, the group is called as chimeric. The core complex for photochemical reaction for it is same to that of the one in the green sulfur bacteria.

They are also called to be the phototrophic microbial mats that have biofilm in many layers including the phototrophic and the chemotrophic bacteria that make it illuminated and for which they are said to be undisturbed species in the shallow sea or the hot springs.

FAQs

What is binary fission?

It is a mode of asexual reproduction that involves one body separation into two new ones. It also includes duplication of genetics via cytokinesis.

What are protists?

There are the groups or general category that are quite not related to the other divisions based on that of plants, bacteria, animals , fungi or the Achaeans.

Is a mushroom a Photoautotroph?

Mushrooms are generally the heterotrophs. These are the ones that are not capable to carry on photosynthesis.

Mushrooms are not actual plants but are the type of fungus that has a form of a plant along with a cap and a stem with also a cell wall. They can be said to be a fruits or a flower of the mushroom.

Photoautotrophs are the one that make their food by using light and carbon dioxide to go through the whole process of photosynthesis. They are never confides with the photo heterotrophs that take up only light but not carbon as organic source.

The fruit or flower of the fungus is also a part of its reproduction that helps in getting the spores dispersed. So just like the animals, fungus can also be chemoheterotrophic while breaking the organic stage from the soil to make up chemical energy.

Also Read:

5 Double Bond Examples: Detailed Insights And Facts

January 20, 2024December 27, 2021 by Sania Jakati

In this article, we will understand N 5 double bond examples with various examples by studying their preparation and properties.

To understand the double bond examples, it’s crucial first to know what does a double bond mean or what do you understand by a double bond? When sharing of two pairs of electrons takes place between atoms, it leads to the formation of the double bond, which is also covalent in nature. When nitrogen is connected to carbon by forming a double bond, it is called an imine.

1. Nitric Oxide (NO)

JB Van Helmont was the first to discover this gas in early 1600. Mayow prepared it in the year 1669 by the action of nitric acid on iron, but Priestley (1772) is regarded as the real discoverer of nitric oxide as a new compound.

Image credit : Diabetes self management

Preparation of NO:

On the action of dilute nitric acid on copper(laboratory method)

Copper chips are placed in a Woulfe’s bottle, and some water is added and some water is added Nitric acid (concentrated in nature) is poured (through the thistle) and liberated (nitric oxide) is collected (over the water).

The gas is purified by absorbing it in ferrous sulfate solution and heating the dark brown nitroso ferrous sulfate obtained when pure nitric oxide is liberated.

A pure sample of the gas is obtained by the deduction potassium nitrate by heating with ferrous sulfate acidified with sulphuric acid ( laboratory method)

In the above reaction, ferrous chloride acidified with hydrochloric acid can also be used in place of acidified ferrous sulfate.

Or, nitric oxide can be obtained when acidified (ferrous sulfate) solution is warmed with a concentrated solution of sodium nitrite.

Alternatively, by oxidation of N2 of the air by passing air through an electric arc when nitrogen and oxygen of the air directly combine to give nitric oxide. (this is a commercial method)

Also, catalytic oxidation of ammonia by passing a mixture of ammonia(1vol) and air (8 vol ) (over heated platinum gauze) at 1070 K ( this is a commercial method)

Preparation of Nitric Oxide.

It is considered to be a colorless gas ( which is a little heavier than air). It can be liquefied at 123.3 K. In liquid state- blue color (boiling point is 123K). At 112 K, it freezes to a blue solid.
When it comes in contact with air, it immediately gives reddish-brown nitrogen dioxide fumes. It is not possible to describe its smell or physiological action.
Soluble in water (sparingly).
It is liquefied with great difficulty under high pressure and low temperature. Liquid nitric oxide( boiling point123 K ) is colorless in the absence of air and solidifies to a white solid ( melting point 112 K ).

Supporter of Combustion: It is combustible and supports the combustion of only boiling sulfur and vigorously burning phosphorus. Burning sulfur and feebly burning phosphorus are extinguished. Red hot iron wire burns in nitric oxide.

Red hot copper decomposes the gas to form nitrogen and copper oxide.

Oxidizing Properties: When the nitric oxide ( Nitrogen(II) oxide ) acts as an oxidizing agent, it usually reduces to nitrogen, but occasionally ammonia or nitrous oxide ( Nitrogen(I)) is also formed. It thus oxidizes hydrogen to water, sulfurous acid to sulphuric acid, and hydrogen sulfide to sulfur.

Reducing Behaviour: It combines (directly )with oxygen to give( reddish brown in nature ) fumes of nitrogen dioxide. With chlorine, it gives nitrosyl chloride ( NOCl).

Due to its easy oxidation property, it acts as an excellent reducing agent. It reduces (acidified ) potassium permanganate and is itself oxidized( to nitric acid). It is also oxidized to nitric acid by iodine( dilute solution).

Concentrated nitric acid oxidized nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide according to the following reversible equation:

The above equation explains as to why concentrated nitric acid reacts with metals to give nitrogen dioxide while dilute nitric acid yields nitric oxide. With concentrated nitric acid, the reaction proceeds in the forward direction, but in the presence of water, e.g., with dilute acid, it proceeds backward. With (moderately) strong nitric acid,( both) the gases are evolved.

Read more about : SN2 mechanism

Uses

In the preparation of nitric acid.
In the detection of oxygen to distinguish it from nitrous oxide.

Structure

Nitric oxide molecule possesses a total of 11 electrons in the valence shells of nitrogen and oxygen atoms. The paramagnetism behavior tells us about the presence of an odd number of electrons, but their properties are different from other odd electron molecules in the following ways :

Regarded colorless ( in a gaseous state) turns brown when exposed to air and is blue in the liquid state.
It is comparatively less active chemically.
It does not dimerize under ordinary conditions.

2.Nitrogen Dioxide

Preparation

In the reaction of nitric oxide with oxygen, it results in nitrogen dioxide.

Laboratory method: It can be conveniently prepared in the laboratory by heating lead nitrate in a hard glass test tube.

Nitrogen dioxide is condensed to liquid nitrogen tetraoxide in the U-tube dipped in the freezing mixture.

5 Double Bond Examples: Detailed Insights And Facts 88 — **Image credit** : Wikipedia

Properties of Nitrogen Dioxide

Physical
It is a reddish-brown gas with a pungent smell.
It associates or decomposes with a temperature change.

This shows that with a fall in temperature, nitrogen dioxide molecules associate to give dinitrogen tetroxide ( N2O4).

It is soluble in water, with which it further acts chemically. It dissolves in nitric acid, giving fuming nitric acid.
It is highly poisonous and corrodes the skin. When inhaled, it produces headaches and sickness.

Read more about : SN1 mechanism

Chemical
Acidic Behaviour: Nitrogen dioxide (mixed anhydride of nitrous and nitric acids), oxyacids containing nitrogen( in the +3 and +5 oxidation states), respectively. It is acidic towards litmus and neutralizes alkalis to form nitrates and nitrites.

Supporter of combustion: It is combustible but supports combustion of brightly burning phosphorus, magnesium ribbon, or glowing charcoal. Burning sulfur or candle is, however, extinguished.
With Sulphuric Acid: Concentrated sulphuric acid absorbs nitrogen dioxide forming nitrosyl hydrogen sulfate.

Uses

In the manufacture of nitric acid.
Important factor (Lead chamber process) as a catalyst in the manufacture of sulphuric acid.

Structure

From the electronic configuration of nitrogen, we know that there are three unpaired electrons and one lone pair of electrons in it. Two of these unpaired electrons form bonds with one oxygen, and the lone pair of electrons form a coordinate bond with the other oxygen leaving one unpaired electron (on nitrogen).

3.Nitrogen Pentoxide

Preparation

By distillation (concentrated) nitric acid with phosphorus pentoxide( at 300 K )in a glass retort when it is dehydrated (to nitrogen pentoxide).

By the action of chlorine (on dry silver nitrate) by passing ozone (through liquid nitrogen tetroxide) when crystalline pentoxide is formed.

Properties

It is a solid ( white colorless with recorded melting point 303 K ) which sublimes( readily). It decomposes above its melting point and explodes when heated rapidly.
It is regarded to destroy substances (organic substances).

Structure

X-ray studies of nitrogen pentoxide suggest it to be an ionic sold, i.e., nitronium nitrate, but in its vapor state, it is present as a symmetrical molecule.

4.Hyponitrous Acid

Preparation

Sodium amalgam reduces sodium nitrite or sodium nitrate or the corresponding potassium salts in an aqueous solution to give hypo nitrites.

When the reduction is complete, the solution is neutralized and treated with silver nitrate when a precipitate of silver hyponitrite is obtained. This is treated with an ether solution of a calculated quantity of hydrochloric acid gas to liberate free hyponitrous acid, which is filtered off from silver chloride.

On evaporating off ether from the filtrate, free hyponitrous acid is obtained as a yellow oil which may be crystallized by keeping in a desiccator under reduced pressure.

Hyponitrites are also produced by the electrolysis of potassium nitrite( or sodium nitrite solution ) as and when the hydrogen liberated (at the cathode) reduces the nitric ( into hyponitrite).

Properties

Hyponitrous acid crystallizes in white leaflets, which explode almost instantaneously on slight friction or rubbing. It is soluble in water, alcohol, chloroform, ether, and benzene. Its aqueous solution is such a weak acid that it does not decompose carbonates. It’s an aqueous solution on heating that gives nitrous oxide and water.

The acid is a dibasic one, as shown by the formation of normal hyponitrites, R2N2O2, and the acid hyponitrites, RHN2O2. The reduction of diethyl hypo nitrite yields ethyl alcohol and nitrogen, which shows that the ethyl groups are not directly attached to nitrogen atoms but have an oxygen atom in between.

5.Nitrous Acid (HNO)

Preparation

Nitrous acid is formed when nitrogen trioxide or an equimolar mixture of NO and NO2 dissolves in water at 273 K.

By adding ice-cold sulphuric acid ( calculated quantity ) to a well-cooled solution of barium nitrite.

The insoluble barium sulfate is removed (filtration process).

Properties

It has a slightly bluish color in the solution.
Decomposition behavior: It is known to be unstable(relatively). Even in the cold, it undergoes auto-oxidation ( simultaneous oxidation and reduction) on standing. It decomposes rapidly if the solution is boiled, giving off the brown fumes in the air and leaving nitric acid.
Oxidizing Properties: Due to the ease with which it can decompose to give nascent oxygen, it acts as an oxidizing agent.

Reaction with ammonia: Nitrous acid decomposes ammonia into nitrogen and water.

Uses

Useful in the manufacture of dyes(azo).

Structure

Nitrous acid is believed to possess a tautomeric structure.

Problems :

What is the name of the process which uses catalyst for preparing ammonia ? and Which compound is used for commercially important azo-dyes manufacturing ?

–Synthesis and Nitrous acid ( HNO )

Which of the above compound is used as a catalyst for preparing sulphuric acid ? and which state nitric oxide is paramagnetic ?

–Nitrogen Dioxide and gaseous state

Also Read:

9 Perfectly Elastic Collision Examples:Explanations,Facts

January 20, 2024December 24, 2021 by AKSHITA MAPARI

In a perfectly elastic collision, two objects collide and rebound without loss of kinetic energy. Example: two identical billiard balls striking at equal speeds; they exchange velocities while conserving total kinetic energy and momentum. Pre-collision velocity of ball A (1 m/s) equals post-collision velocity of ball B, and vice versa, assuming no external forces or rotational effects.

Ping-pong ball

A ping pong ball bounces conserving its kinetic energy and momentum on every bounce. The more the potential energy is given to the ping pong ball, the more it will attain the height on the bounce by converting all the potential energy into kinetic energy while approaching the ground surface due to the gravitational force pulling it downward. This will create an impact on the ground and the ball will bounce up vertically in the air stream.

The gravitational force acting downward is equal to the force due to the air stream upward. The kinetic energy of the ball, the momentum, and the height up to which the ball is bouncing is governed by the potential energy of the ball and the decrease in the static pressure.

Moreover, a ping pong ball is light in weight and springy, it loses only a small amount of kinetic energy due to the less frictional force experienced. Hence, the kinetic energy and momentum, both are conserved by the bouncing ping pong ball.

Hitting the Marbles

Marble is associated with the potential energy on lifting it to a certain height. This potential energy is converted into kinetic energy which is the energy of motion.

Blue, Glass, Marbles, Kids, Games, Play, Round — **Marbles;**
**Image Credit: pixabay**

The kinetic energy is released on hitting the marble kept stable at the center. Upon striking, the kinetic energy of the marble released is transferred to the marble on the ground and it displaces with the amount of kinetic energy it receives.

Newton’s Cradle

Newton’s cradle is a perfect example of elastic collision as it conserves both momentum and energy. The bobs hanging on the cradle with a string of equal length consist of equal masses. Usually, Newton’s cradle comes with five bobs.

When one bob from the corner is given momentum, it transfers the energy in the form of potential energy and released back the energy by swinging the bob at the end of the row in the air and again passing the potential energy to the bobs at the middle. Thus conserving the energy once given to the cradle and momentum of the bobs is also conserved.

perfectly elastic collision examples — **Newton’s Cradle**

For a collision of the bobs to be perfectly elastic, the momentum and the energy associated with the bobs must be the same even after the collision and this can be formulated for the Newton’s cradle in the equation below:

Since, m₁=m₂=m₃=m₄=m₅=m and there is kinetic energy associated with the bobs 2,3 and 4 the velocity of bob 2-4 is equal to zero. And the initial velocity of bob 5 is zero and after the collision, the velocity of bob 1 becomes zero.

Therefore,

mu₁=mv₅

The momentum and the kinetic energy of bob 1 & bob 5 are the same, as it is conserved by the bob in the middle of them both.

Collision of Billiard Balls

On targeting a billiard ball with a billiard stick, the kinetic energy is given to the ball due to which it starts accelerating and collides with the target ball. On colliding, the kinetic energy is transferred to the target ball and is directed towards the pocket.

Carrom

When the striker strikes the carrommen, the kinetic energy and momentum of the striker are transferred to the carrommen. On gaining the kinetic energy, the carrommen travels further towards the net hole of the carom board.

Compton Scattering

This is an example of a collision of photons with a stable charged particle. A photon approaching from infinity strikes the charged particle possessing energy:-

E_photon=hc/λ

On colliding with the charged particle the kinetic energy of the photon is transferred to the charged particle which is then recoiled by the particle and the remaining energy is scattered by the particle releasing out the photon.

The change in the wavelength of the photon before and after colliding is given by the equation:-

The momentum and energy of the photon is conserved in this collision, hence it is an elastic collision.

Trampoline

A person jumping on a trampoline gains potential energy due to the elasticity of the trampoline which throws the body into the air converting this potential energy into the kinetic energy that sets the body in motion.

This kinetic energy is converted back into the potential energy when the body attains the height where all the kinetic energy is converted into the potential energy and hence there is a pause for some milliseconds in the air before the body starts returning down due to the effect of gravity.

The energy of the body and the momentum is conserved while jumping on the trampoline, hence is an example of perfectly elastic collision.

Air Bags

Molecules in air move in random motions due to the wide separation between them. As the temperature of the system increases the agility of the molecules in the air increases and there are more chances of collision due to the randomness in motion of the molecules.

These molecules bombard with each other in the air, releasing and gaining an equal amount of energy depending upon the molecular masses, and get scattered maintaining an equivalent measure of kinetic energy and momentum that was before the collision of the molecules.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a perfectly elastic collision?

If a particle on colliding retains its kinetic energy and momentum then it is called an elastic collision.

In a perfectly elastic collision, the kinetic energy and the momentum of the particle do not change after a collision.

Does the kinetic energy change after collision in a perfectly elastic collision?

No, it does not change after the collision in a perfectly elastic collision.

The kinetic energy does not transform into any other form of energy and no kinetic energy is lost in the collision.

How elastic collision is different from perfectly elastic collision?

Both types of collision are elastic collisions hence we know that the kinetic energy, as well as the momentum, is conserved in the process.

But in the case of perfectly elastic collision, there is no loss in the kinetic energy at all; so is not the case in an elastic collision.

How can you minimize the force acting on the object during the collision?

The less the kinetic energy the object, the smaller will be the impact of the object during the collision.

A force can be minimized by lowering the time required for the collision of the object that is by reducing the velocity of the object.

Also Read:

Alkyl Halide Examples: Detailed Insights And Facts

January 20, 2024December 24, 2021 by Smruti Bhosale

In this article, we are going to see what are the alkyl halides, their insights, and facts in detail with some alkyl halide examples.

Bromoethane
1-Iodo propane
1-Chloro butane
Fluoroethane
2-Bromo butane
2- Iodo propane
2- Iodo-2-methyl propane
2-Bromo-2-methyl butane
2-Chloro-2-methyl pentane
2-Iodo butane
2-Chloro propane
2-Bromo-3-ethyl hexane
1-Bromo-2,2-dimethyl propane
3- Chloro pentane
1-Bromo-2-methyl butane
2-Iodo-3-methyl butane
1- Bromo-2,3-dimethyl butane
2- Fluoro butane
1-Chloro-2,2-dimethyl propane
2-Chloro butane

Alkyl Halide Examples

Alkyl halides are compounds that contain halogens as one of their constituents along with alkanes. In alkane, when one or more hydrogen atoms get substituted by halogen atoms it is termed an alkyl halide. They also called as Haloalkane.

Halogens are group seventeen elements, electronegative. Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine are the halogens, Represented by ‘X’. Hence, the alkyl halides are expressed as R-X.

Where , R- Alkyl group or carbon chain and X- Halogens as F, Cl, Br, I.

Alkyl halides are classified as

On account of several carbon atoms having bonded with the carbon atom, which is attached to the halogen atom, alkyl halides are classified as primary, secondary, tertiary alkyl halides.

Primary alkyl halides (1°)

When one carbon atom had a bond with the carbon atom which is attached to the halogen atom it is known as Primary alkyl halide or 1° alkyl halide.

Usually primary alkyl halides undergo S_N2 reaction mechanism.

Secondary alkyl halides (2°)

When two carbon atoms had a bond with the carbon atom which is attached to the halogen atom it is known as Secondary alkyl halides or 2° alkyl halides.

Secondary alkyl halides undergo both S_N1 and S_N2 reaction mechanisms.

Tertiary alkyl halides (3°)

When three carbon atoms had a bond with the carbon atom which is attached to the halogen atom it is known as Tertiary alkyl halides or 3° alkyl halides.

Tertiary alkyl halide undergo S_N1 reaction mechanism.

Alkyl halide examples — **Figure1 : Classification of Alkyl halides**

Alkyl halides are used as Solvents. They are also used as Refrigerants, Propellants, Fire retardants. Alkyl halides like Chloroform, are used as medical Anesthetic.

Read more on List of 20 Examples of Unbalanced Force

Frequently Asked Questions :

Question: What is alkyl halide example ?

Answer: Some examples of alkyl halides are given below,

Alkyl halides are classified as primary, secondary, tertiary alkyl halides. 2- Iodo-2-methyl propane (3°) , 2-Chloro propane (2°) , 1-Bromo-2-methyl butane (1°) etc. are the examples of haloalkane.

Question: What is primary alkyl halide?

Answer: The term primary alkyl halide is use

When, one ( Primary) carbon atom is attached to the carbon atom which is bonded with the halogen atom it is known as Primary alkyl halide or 1° alkyl halide. Represented as R-CH₂-X.

Question: What is the formula for alkyl halides?

Answer: The formula for alkyl halide

In alkane, when one or more hydrogen atoms get substituted by halogen atoms it is termed an alkyl halide. The alkyl halides are represented as R-X. Where , R- Alkyl group or carbon chain and X- Halogens as F, Cl, Br, I.

Question: What is 3 alkyl halide?

Answer: The term 3 alkyl halide is use

When three carbon atoms had a bond with the carbon atom which is attached to the halogen atom it is known as Tertiary alkyl halides or 3° alkyl halides.

Question: What are the types of alkyl halide?

Answer: The alkyl halides are classified as

On account of several carbon atoms having bonded with the carbon atom, which is attached to the halogen atom, alkyl halides are classified as Primary alkyl halide, Secondary alkyl halide, Tertiary alkyl halides.

When one carbon atom had a bond with the carbon atom which is attached to the halogen atom it is known as Primary alkyl halide or 1° alkyl halide. When two carbon atoms had a bond with the carbon atom which is attached to the halogen atom it is known as Secondary alkyl halides or 2° alkyl halides. When three carbon atoms had a bond with the carbon atom which is attached to the halogen atom it is known as Tertiary alkyl halides or 3° alkyl halides.

Also Read:

Reflection of light examples

Mirror images

The image formed by Reflection through the spherical mirror

Reflection through headlights

Reflection through side mirror of vehicles

Reflection of the image in water bodies

Reflection through shoe polished surface

To observe various colors around us

Working of the camera through Reflection of light

Working of Microscopes through Reflection of light

Working of Telescopes through Reflection of light

Reflection of light on a polished rough surface

Reflection of light in formation of images through eyes

Shining of beautiful stars

Reflection observed in luminous bodies

Reflection of Light observed in the moon

Reflection observed in non-luminous bodies

Frequently Asked Questions | FAQs

What is the actual meaning of Reflection of light?

Mention the different applications of Reflection of light?

What are the main aspects of the laws of Reflection?

What are the examples of good reflectors of light?

Let us understand 3 isolated system examples:-

Head On Collision Of Two Cars

The Collision Of Balls On Billiards Table

Our Entire Universe

A Thermos Flask

Characteristics

Ionic Bond Examples

Sodium Chloride NaCl

Sodium Bromide NaBr

Sodium Fluoride NaF

Potassium Chloride KCl

Potassium Iodide KI

Potassium Bromide KBr

Potassium Fluoride KF

Lithium Iodide LiI

Lithium Oxide Li2O

Calcium Oxide CaO

Frequently Asked Questions:

Question: Is CaCl2 an ionic compound?

Question: What is an ionic bond?

Question: What are the differences between ionic and covalent bonds?

SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP

CALCIUM PUMP

PROTON PUMP

SODIUM-GLUCOSE TRANSPORT PROTEIN

PINOCYTOSIS

PHAGOCYTOSIS

MULTIDRUG ABC TRANSPORTERS

SODIUM-CALCIUM ANTIPORTER

Characteristics

Coordinate Covalent Bond Examples

Formation of Ammonium boron trifluoride NH3→BF3

Formation of Ammonium ion NH4+

Formation of Hydronium ion H3O+

Formation of tetrafluroboron BF4–

Formation of Aluminium chloride AlCl6

Sulphur dioxide SO2

Sulphur trioxide SO3

Sulphuric acid H2SO4

Nitrogen pentaoxide N2O5

Nitromethane

Hexammine Cobalt (lll) chloride Co(NH3)6Cl3

Hexaaquo cobalt (ll) chloride Co(H2O)6Cl2

Tetracarbonyl Nickel Ni(CO)4

Hexaaquo Aluminium (lll)

Ozone

Frequently asked questions:

1)Question: What is meant by a dative bond?

2)Question: What are the differences between coordinate and covalent bonds?

3) Question: Is the coordinate bond directional?

Nitrogen (N₂)

Nitrogen Tetroxide

Dinitrogen Difluoride

Nitrate: (NO3- )

Problems:

Which of the above substance occurs in isomer form ?

Which compound can be prepared by following Claude’s process? and Which of the above mentioned compound has the ability to undergo autoionization ?

Photosynthetic autotrophic bacteria examples

Lithium Oxide Li₂O

Question: Is CaCl₂ an ionic compound?

Formation of Ammonium boron trifluoride NH₃→BF₃

Formation of Ammonium ion NH₄⁺

Formation of Hydronium ion H₃O⁺

Formation of tetrafluroboron BF₄^–

Formation of Aluminium chloride AlCl₆

Sulphur dioxide SO₂

Sulphur trioxide SO₃

Sulphuric acid H₂SO₄

Nitrogen pentaoxide N₂O₅

Hexammine Cobalt (lll) chloride Co(NH3)₆Cl₃

Hexaaquo cobalt (ll) chloride Co(H₂O)₆Cl₂

Tetracarbonyl Nickel Ni(CO)₄