Hello, I am Sugaprabha Prasath, a Postgraduate in the field of Microbiology. I am an active member of the Indian association of applied microbiology (IAAM). I have research experience in preclinical (Zebrafish), bacterial enzymology, and nanotechnology. I have published 2 research articles in an International journal and a few more are yet to be published, 2 sequences were submitted to NCBI-GENBANK. I am good at clearly explaining the concepts in biology at both basic and advanced levels. My area of specialization is biotechnology, microbiology, enzymology, molecular biology, and pharmacovigilance. Apart from academics, I love gardening and being with plants and animals.
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Glycolipids are a unique class of lipids that play a crucial role in various biological processes, from cell signaling to immune function. These complex molecules consist of a carbohydrate moiety covalently linked to a hydrophobic moiety, typically a ceramide or a glycerol backbone. The diversity of glycolipid structures is truly remarkable, with variations in the type and number of sugar residues, as well as the composition of the fatty acid chains and long-chain bases.
Glycolipid Composition and Structural Diversity
Glycolipids can be classified into several subgroups based on the nature of their carbohydrate and hydrophobic moieties:
Glycosphingolipids: These glycolipids have a ceramide backbone, which consists of a long-chain base (e.g., sphingosine) and a fatty acid. The carbohydrate moiety can range from a single monosaccharide to complex oligosaccharides.
Examples: Cerebrosides, gangliosides, globosides, and sulfatides.
Glycoglycerolipids: These glycolipids have a glycerol backbone, with the carbohydrate moiety attached to the glycerol via a glycosidic linkage.
Examples: Monoglycosyldiacylglycerols (MGDGs), diglycosyldiacylglycerols (DGDGs), and triglycosyldiacylglycerols (TGDGs).
Bacterial Glycolipids: Certain bacteria, such as Mycobacterium and Corynebacterium, produce unique glycolipids that play important roles in their cell wall structure and pathogenicity.
Examples: Trehalose-containing glycolipids, lipoarabinomannans, and glycopeptidolipids.
The structural diversity of glycolipids is further enhanced by the various types of monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, galactose, N-acetylglucosamine, N-acetylgalactosamine) and the different glycosidic linkages (α or β) that can be present in the carbohydrate moiety. Additionally, the fatty acid composition and the length of the hydrophobic chains can vary significantly, contributing to the overall structural complexity of glycolipids.
Analytical Techniques for Glycolipid Structure Elucidation
Researchers have developed a range of analytical techniques to study the structure of glycolipids, each providing unique insights into their molecular composition and three-dimensional architecture.
Mass Spectrometry (MS)
Mass spectrometry is a powerful tool for the structural analysis of glycolipids. It can provide information on the molecular weight, composition, and structural features of individual glycolipid molecules, including isomers. Some key applications of MS in glycolipid analysis include:
Determination of the number and type of sugar residues in the carbohydrate moiety.
Identification of the fatty acid composition and the length of the hydrophobic chains.
Elucidation of the linkage between the carbohydrate and hydrophobic moieties.
Analysis of glycolipid fragmentation patterns, which can reveal insights into the structural features of each molecular species.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
NMR spectroscopy is another essential technique for studying the three-dimensional structure of glycolipids. It can provide information on the configuration of the glycosidic linkages, the conformation of the fatty acid chains, and the dynamics of glycolipids within membranes. NMR analysis can help researchers understand:
The stereochemistry and anomeric configuration of the glycosidic linkages.
The orientation and packing of the fatty acid chains within the hydrophobic moiety.
The rate of flip-flop between the inner and outer leaflets of the membrane.
Chromatographic Techniques
In addition to MS and NMR, various chromatographic techniques can be employed to study the structure and composition of glycolipids:
Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC): TLC can be used to separate and analyze the different classes of glycolipids based on their polarity and hydrophobicity.
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): HPLC can provide information on the molecular weight, purity, and distribution of glycolipids within a sample.
Gas Chromatography (GC): GC can be used to analyze the fatty acid composition of the hydrophobic moiety of glycolipids.
These chromatographic techniques, often coupled with mass spectrometry or other detection methods, can help researchers understand the overall composition and distribution of glycolipids in various biological samples.
Quantitative Analysis of Glycolipid Structure
Researchers have developed various methods to quantify the structural features of glycolipids, providing valuable insights into their biological functions and properties.
Molecular Weight Determination
The molecular weight of a glycolipid can be measured using mass spectrometry or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). This information is crucial for understanding the overall size and complexity of the molecule.
Carbohydrate Moiety Composition
The type and number of sugar residues in the carbohydrate moiety can be determined using a combination of mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. These techniques can provide detailed information on the monosaccharide composition, the glycosidic linkages, and the presence of any modifications (e.g., acetylation, sulfation).
Hydrophobic Moiety Composition
The fatty acid composition and the length of the hydrophobic chains can be analyzed using mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and gas chromatography (GC). This information is essential for understanding the physicochemical properties of the glycolipid, such as its membrane partitioning and interactions with other lipids.
Linkage between Carbohydrate and Hydrophobic Moieties
The nature of the linkage between the carbohydrate and hydrophobic moieties can be determined using mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. This includes the identification of the type of glycosidic bond (e.g., O-glycosidic, N-glycosidic) and the position of attachment.
Glycolipid Fragmentation Patterns
Mass spectrometry, particularly tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), can be used to analyze the fragmentation patterns of glycolipids. This information can provide insights into the structural features of each molecular species, such as the presence of specific sugar residues or the location of fatty acid chains.
Three-Dimensional Structure
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy can be employed to elucidate the three-dimensional structure of glycolipids, including the configuration of the glycosidic linkages and the conformation of the fatty acid chains. This structural information is crucial for understanding the biological functions and interactions of glycolipids.
Cellular Localization and Distribution
Techniques such as thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) can be used to study the distribution of glycolipids between different cellular compartments and organelles. This information can shed light on the specific roles and functions of glycolipids within the cellular context.
By combining these various analytical techniques, researchers can obtain a comprehensive understanding of the structure, composition, and distribution of glycolipids, which is essential for unraveling their diverse biological roles and potential applications in fields such as cell biology, immunology, and biotechnology.
Animal cells are eukaryotic cells that possess a well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, including ribosomes. Ribosomes are essential cellular components responsible for the synthesis of proteins, which are the building blocks of life. In this comprehensive guide, we will delve into the intricate details of ribosomes in animal cells, their structure, function, and the latest advancements in their study.
The Importance of Ribosomes in Animal Cells
Ribosomes are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, including animal cells. These organelles play a crucial role in the process of protein synthesis, where they facilitate the translation of messenger RNA (mRNA) into functional proteins. Proteins are essential for a wide range of cellular processes, such as structural support, enzymatic activity, signaling, and transport.
In animal cells, ribosomes are primarily responsible for synthesizing proteins that function within the cytosol or pass through the endomembrane system, which includes the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus. These proteins are essential for the proper functioning and maintenance of the cell.
The Structure and Composition of Ribosomes in Animal Cells
Ribosomes in animal cells are composed of two subunits: a larger subunit and a smaller subunit. These subunits are made up of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. The larger subunit is responsible for the catalytic activity of the ribosome, while the smaller subunit is involved in the recognition and binding of mRNA.
The nucleolus, a round structure within the nucleus, is responsible for the production of ribosomes. The rRNA molecules are synthesized in the nucleolus, and the ribosomal proteins are imported from the cytoplasm. The assembly of the ribosomal subunits occurs in the nucleolus, and the completed ribosomes are then transported to the cytoplasm or the ER, where they can participate in protein synthesis.
Ribosomes in the Cytoplasm and Endoplasmic Reticulum
Ribosomes can be found in two distinct locations within the animal cell: freely suspended in the cytoplasm or bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Cytoplasmic Ribosomes: Cytoplasmic ribosomes are responsible for the synthesis of proteins that function within the cytosol or are destined for export from the cell. These ribosomes are not associated with any membrane-bound organelles and can move freely throughout the cytoplasm.
ER-bound Ribosomes: Ribosomes can also be found attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER), a specialized region of the ER. These ER-bound ribosomes are responsible for the synthesis of proteins that are destined for the endomembrane system, such as those that will be transported to the Golgi apparatus, secreted from the cell, or incorporated into the cell membrane.
The location of the ribosomes within the animal cell determines the fate of the proteins they synthesize. Cytoplasmic ribosomes produce proteins that remain in the cytosol, while ER-bound ribosomes synthesize proteins that will be processed and transported through the endomembrane system.
Advances in the Study of Ribosomes in Animal Cells
Recent advancements in research techniques have provided new insights into the study of ribosomes in animal cells. One such technique is Ribo-ITP (Ribosome Immunoprecipitation and Transcript Profiling), which allows for the accurate measurement of ribosome occupancy at the single-cell level.
A study using Ribo-ITP revealed that ribosome occupancy can be accurately measured from as few as 100 human cells. This technique allowed for the detection of an average of 5,064 genes per cell, with a median of 48,017 unique molecules originating from the coding regions of transcripts. This highlights the sensitivity and accuracy of modern methods for studying ribosome function in animal cells.
Furthermore, the use of advanced microscopy techniques, such as cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), has provided unprecedented insights into the structural details of ribosomes. Cryo-EM has enabled researchers to visualize the three-dimensional structure of ribosomes at near-atomic resolution, shedding light on the intricate mechanisms of protein synthesis.
Conclusion
In summary, animal cells do possess ribosomes, which are essential organelles responsible for the synthesis of proteins. These ribosomes can be found either freely suspended in the cytoplasm or bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, with each location serving distinct functions. The nucleolus is responsible for the production and assembly of ribosomes, which are then transported to their respective locations within the cell.
Advancements in research techniques, such as Ribo-ITP and cryo-EM, have provided new insights into the study of ribosomes in animal cells, allowing for the accurate measurement of ribosome occupancy and the visualization of their intricate structural details. Understanding the role and function of ribosomes in animal cells is crucial for advancing our knowledge of cellular processes and their implications in various biological and medical fields.
Plant cells, like all eukaryotic cells, possess a remarkable organelle called the ribosome. Ribosomes are the cellular factories responsible for the synthesis of proteins, the fundamental building blocks of life. In this comprehensive guide, we will delve into the intricate details of ribosomes in plant cells, exploring their structure, function, and the critical role they play in the overall cellular processes.
The Presence and Importance of Ribosomes in Plant Cells
Plant cells are known to have a high demand for ribosomes, as they are essential for the synthesis of proteins required for various cellular functions, such as photosynthesis, cell division, and metabolic processes. Ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm, chloroplasts, and mitochondria of plant cells, underscoring their ubiquitous presence and importance.
Ribosome Structure and Composition in Plant Cells
Ribosomes in plant cells are larger than their prokaryotic counterparts, measuring approximately 20-30 nm in diameter. They have a sedimentation coefficient of 80S, with the large subunit having a sedimentation coefficient of 60S and the small subunit having a sedimentation coefficient of 40S. The molecular weight of ribosomes in plant cells is approximately 4.2 MDa.
The ribosomes in plant cells are composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. A study published in the Journal of Proteome Research in 2018 identified a total of 79 ribosomal proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana, including 33 small subunit proteins and 46 large subunit proteins. This diversity in ribosomal proteins suggests the presence of specialized ribosomes that can regulate mRNA translation and control protein synthesis in response to various environmental and developmental cues.
Ribosome Biogenesis in Plant Cells
The biogenesis of ribosomes in plant cells is a complex and highly regulated process that involves the coordinated synthesis and assembly of rRNA and ribosomal proteins. This process takes place in the nucleolus, a specialized sub-compartment within the nucleus, and is essential for the proper functioning of plant cells.
The biogenesis of ribosomes in plant cells involves the following key steps:
Transcription of rRNA genes: The rRNA genes are transcribed by RNA polymerase I to produce the precursor rRNA molecules.
Processing and modification of rRNA: The precursor rRNA molecules undergo various processing and modification steps, such as cleavage, methylation, and pseudouridylation, to generate the mature rRNA species.
Ribosomal protein synthesis: The ribosomal proteins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and then transported to the nucleolus for assembly.
Assembly of ribosomal subunits: The mature rRNA molecules and ribosomal proteins are assembled into the large (60S) and small (40S) ribosomal subunits.
Nuclear export and cytoplasmic maturation: The ribosomal subunits are exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where they undergo final maturation steps before becoming functional ribosomes.
The regulation of ribosome biogenesis in plant cells is a crucial aspect, as it ensures the proper production and allocation of ribosomes to meet the varying demands of different cell types and growth conditions.
Functional Roles of Ribosomes in Plant Cells
Ribosomes in plant cells play a vital role in the synthesis of proteins required for various cellular processes. These processes include, but are not limited to:
Photosynthesis: Ribosomes are responsible for the synthesis of proteins involved in the light-dependent and light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, such as the components of the photosynthetic apparatus and the enzymes of the Calvin cycle.
Cell Division and Growth: Ribosomes are essential for the synthesis of proteins required for cell division, cell wall formation, and cell expansion, which are crucial for plant growth and development.
Metabolism: Ribosomes are involved in the synthesis of enzymes and other proteins required for various metabolic pathways, including the biosynthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, and secondary metabolites.
Stress Response: Ribosomes play a role in the synthesis of proteins involved in the plant’s response to biotic and abiotic stresses, such as drought, temperature extremes, and pathogen attack.
Signaling and Regulation: Ribosomes are involved in the synthesis of proteins that are part of signaling cascades and regulatory networks, which are essential for the coordination of various cellular processes.
The number and distribution of ribosomes within plant cells can vary depending on the cell type, growth stage, and environmental conditions. For example, actively growing and dividing cells, such as meristematic cells, typically have a higher ribosome content to support the increased demand for protein synthesis. In contrast, mature, non-dividing cells may have a lower ribosome content, as their protein synthesis requirements are generally lower.
Regulation of Ribosome Biogenesis and Function in Plant Cells
The biogenesis and function of ribosomes in plant cells are tightly regulated to ensure the proper allocation and utilization of these essential organelles. This regulation involves various mechanisms, including:
Transcriptional Control: The expression of genes encoding ribosomal proteins and rRNA is regulated at the transcriptional level, with various transcription factors and epigenetic mechanisms playing a role in this process.
Post-transcriptional Regulation: The processing, modification, and assembly of ribosomal components are subject to post-transcriptional regulation, involving factors such as RNA-binding proteins and small RNAs.
Translational Control: The translation of ribosomal proteins is regulated to ensure the balanced production of the different ribosomal subunits, preventing imbalances that could lead to cellular dysfunction.
Spatial and Temporal Regulation: The localization and distribution of ribosomes within plant cells are regulated to meet the specific protein synthesis requirements of different cellular compartments and developmental stages.
Stress Response Mechanisms: Plant cells can modulate ribosome biogenesis and function in response to various environmental stresses, such as nutrient deprivation, temperature extremes, and pathogen attack, to adapt to changing conditions.
Understanding the regulation of ribosome biogenesis and function in plant cells is an active area of research, as it provides insights into the complex mechanisms that underlie plant growth, development, and stress responses.
Conclusion
In summary, plant cells do indeed possess ribosomes, which are essential organelles responsible for the synthesis of proteins required for various cellular processes. Ribosomes in plant cells are larger and more complex than their prokaryotic counterparts, with a diverse array of ribosomal proteins that suggest the presence of specialized ribosomes. The biogenesis and function of ribosomes in plant cells are tightly regulated to ensure the proper allocation and utilization of these essential organelles, contributing to the overall growth, development, and stress response of plants.
Mushrooms are one such group of micro-organism to be more precise, a fungi that is taken as a food in many many countries including India. It is still confusing to many that it should be fallen under a plant food or an animal food or a separate category.
The structure or the morphology of the mushroom is simple and aesthetic as most of the mushrooms appear as if it is a miniature tree that holds a thick umbrella. So technically the mushrooms are multicellular organisms that have a cap-like structure on top.
The stalk of the mushroom is held in the soil whereas the attachment between the cap and the stalk is the gills that are very spongy and in a strip-like structure that hold or adhere the cap and stalk.
Then, the mushroom has the hyphae or branched mycelium that is the major part in the nutrient uptake process.
Examples of mushrooms include White Button Mushroom- Champignon (de Paris), Crimini Mushroom- Italian brown, brown mushrooms, Portobello Mushroom – open cap mushroom, Shiitake Mushroom- black mushroom, oriental black, forest mushroom.
Also include Maitake Mushroom, Oyster Mushroom, Enoki Mushroom, Beech Mushroom, King Trumpet Mushroom, Black Trumpet Mushroom
The commonmolds that are seen frequently include aspergillus, stachybotrys atra, cladosporium , Rhizopus. We all would have noticed greenish black patches or dots on the slice of bread. (Please refer the imagebelow)
It is because the bread gets puffed up by the yeast that is added by the baker, later on after a few days the shelf life of the bread decreases, causing the bread to spoil or rot.
Molds easily get in the bread and start to utilize and digest the matter in the bread for their survival.
This is why molds are naturally seen everywhere. Molds are multicellular microscopic organisms with multiple filaments and hyphae that are highly branched.
Neurospora:
Neurospora which is also called the nerve spore is similar to that of axons on the spore. They fall under the ascomycete fungi.
Few of the neurospora are multicellular fungi that have around 26+ structurally distinct cell types. In comparison to conidia, neurospora is more resistant to stress.
Basidiomycetes:
Basidiomycetes are large variety phylum in fungi that includes not only mushrooms but also shelf fungi, puffballs, and stinkhorns.
Calvatia gigantea, which is also know called the snowball fungus or the giant puffball, is a good example of multicellular fungi that appearance like a snow ball on the soil.
What is a multicellular fungus?
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms which can do damage and also helpful to other organisms like plants, animals etc.
Multicellular fungi are the fungi that have multiple cells or to be more clear they have more hyphae in them that are branched. Multicellular fungi multiple and proliferate by producing spores.
Multicellular fungi examples characteristics:
Multicellular Fungi are eukaryotic organisms which are non-motile and they can not produce their food by themselves.
Multicellular fungi are filamentous which produces more hyphae and they are highly branched.
Multicellular fungi multiply by producing spores.
Multicellular Fungi do not havechlorophyll in them and that is the reason that they cannot perform the complex mechanism of photosynthesis, which will aid in the synthesis of nutrition.
Fungi store their nutritive food (energy molecule) in the form of starch.
Bio production of chitin particles occurs in fungi.
The nuclei of the fungi are very minute.
The fungi do not have an embryonic stage. Fungi develop and multiply by the process of spores formation that is formed when maturation.
few multicellular fungi can be issue causing and can invade the host and cause discomfort
Multicellular fungi possess lots of tubular structures called the filaments or the hyphae that are bunched together and called the mycelia or mycelium.
They have 2 distinctive structural stages called the vegetative and the multiplication stage. due to such complex mechanisms happening, it is grouped under multicellular organisms.
Summary:
The article multicellular fungi examples briefly explains all the insights about structure of a multicellular fungi– the presence of filament- tubular structures, mycelia (mycelium), Hyphae and the multicellular fungi examples such as mushrooms, molds, neurospora and the phylum Basidiomycetes; Their features and appearance in the environment.
Mycorrhiza, the meaning of the Mycorrhiza is “Fungal-Root”, meaning the type of fungus that is present in the root of plants to promote their growth and well being.
Here is the exclusive list of Mycorrhizal Fungi Examples
We will see in detail about the Ectomycorrhiza and Endomycorrhiza related examples in detail in this article.
Ectomycorrhiza:
Ectomycorrhiza or also called the ECM, is a very close interaction between the fungus and the plant in which both the plants and the fungus is being benefited for the prevalence and well-being of both the partners (Here the partners are the plant and the tree or plant root).
The working mechanism of the ecto mycorrhiza is that hyphae of the fungi do not get deep inside the cortical cells of the plant root during their association. The prevalence of this interaction between the plant and fungi is not that widespread and they are not that widely prevalence.
Ectomycorrhiza on an average is said to be prevalent only about 5 to 10%.
The fungal partner that are involved in this type of interaction, ectomycorrhiza is Ascomycota (Neurospora, Yeast, Cup fungi, Morels, Truffles, Penicillium, Powdery Mildews,Cladonia, Candida, Claviceps, Aspergillus) and Basidiomycota (Ustilago, Puccinia, Agaricus).
The systemic hosts in the Ectomycorrhiza interaction are mostly conifers (Pine trees, douglas fir, ginkgo trees, Cedrus , and redwoods), but still few Non-conifers like hardwoods like oak and beech also show this interaction.
Endomycorrhiza:
As the endomycorrhizal interaction is much more invasive than the ectomycorrhizal interaction, endomycorrhizal interactions are more prevalent than ectomycorrhizal interaction.
Endomycorrhiza is much more prevalent as it ranges about 80% in the plant species. It can be grasslands to crops like common vegetables, flowering pants, fruit trees etc.
The working mechanism of the endomycorrhizal interaction is that the fungi that uses the endomycorrhizal interaction get into the plant cell so deeply that they reach the cortical cells and they tend to produce vesicles and arbuscules in the plant.
Glomeromycota shows the endomycorrhizal interaction, Glomeromycota include Gigaspora margarita, Geosiphon pyriformis, Scutellospora persica and the hosts are usually vascular plants.
Orchid Mycorrhiza:
From the name, we can say Orchid Mycorrhiza is something related to orchid plants. We know that plants perform a complex mechanism called photosynthesis for their survival for food.
Only by the process of photosynthesis, the plant can get enough nutrients for survival. Orchids generally can not undergo the photosynthesis process before the stage of seedings. Few orchids or non- photosynthetic organisms.
The mycorrhiza fungi that is present in the root of the orchid plant provides enough sugars for their survival. The seed of the orchid will be in need of the invasion of the fungi to get the enough nutrients to germinate, and that’s how the germination takes place in orchids.
From the seed, the fungi takes the nutrients and the fungi grows as well.
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza:
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza is one of the best example and well known mycorrhizal interactions among all. The supply of the nutrient “Phosphorus” is facilitated in arbuscular mycorrhiza.
As the name suggests, this type of mycorrhizal interaction supports the formation of arbuscular cells which remain as the site of exchange of nutrients like carbon, phosphorus prominently and water.
Zygomycota families like Rhizopus usually show arbuscular mycorrhiza type of interaction. The fungi are so dominant towards the plant that they will not be able to thrive without their plant host.
Ericaceous Mycorrhiza:
Ericaceous mycorrhizae is seen in the order of plants in Ericales. Like Arbuscular Mycorrhiza, they do not form any arbuscles for the nutrient exchange, but Ericaceous Mycorrhizae do invade the plant root cell and thus facilitates the uptake of mineral ions like Magnesium, Alumunium, Iron etc.
The fungi in this type of interaction do produce few structures called the hyphal coils which grow outside the root of the plant, showing there is an increase in the potent volume of the plant root.
Arbutoid Mycorrhiza:
Arbutoid mycorrhiza is often easily mistaken to be under ectomycorrhizae as their working mechanism is quite similar to ectomycorrhizae. The first part of the working mechanism is similar to ectomycorrhizae as they do not penetrate into the plant cortical cells.
Arbutoid mycorrhiza fungi attaches itself to the plant root and forms the fungal sheath for the nutrient exchange. But later on the hyphae of the fungi gets deep into the cortical cells of the plant as it works on its purpose, thus it is differentiated from the ectomycorrhiza.
Ectotrophic Mycorrhiza:
Ectotrophic Mycorrhiza is one of the simplest mycorrhizal interactions between the two partners, the plants and the fungi.
The Basidiomycota(Ustilago, Puccinia, Agaricus) and the Ascomycota (Neurospora, Yeast, Cup fungi, Morels, Truffles, Penicillium, Powdery Mildews,Cladonia, Candida, Claviceps, Aspergillus) families are involved in this fungi-plant interaction.
The fungi get their essential nutrients and sugars for the survival from the plant, and the plant gains nutrients and sugar for their survival from the fungi and both benefit from each other.
This type of association can be seen in the cooler environment rather than the warmer temperature.
There are two types of mycorrhiza, they are Ectomycorrhiza (Non-Invasive) and Endomycorrhiza (Invasive). Both these interaction work for the benefit of the plant as well as the fungi.
Relationship between fungi and tree root Image Credits- Wikimedia
The plant gets benefited as the fungi initiates and aid in the water and nutrient supply for the plant and the fungi is benefited from the plant as it supplies the essential growth and nutrient supply for the fungi to grow.
Ectomycorrhiza interaction is when the hyphae of the fungi do not get deep inside the cortical cells of the plant root during their association but still aids in the well-being of the plant.
Endomycorrhiza interaction is when the fungi that uses the endomycorrhizal interaction get into the plant cell so deeply that they reach the cortical cells and they tend to produce vesicles and arbuscules in the plant.
Benefits for plants:
The plants can not get phosphorus and nitrogen that easily from the soil, this association will aid in getting nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen and even water as the fungi mycelia has very tiny structures that reach out to the other end easily and facilitates the nutrient to the plant.
The plants that are in relationship with such fungi are said to be more resistant to any soil borne diseases and they have different exposure to fungi and also they are less prone to diseases.
The fungi aid in maintaining the soil pH, and quality thus making the plant lead a peaceful life rather than getting a stressful life due to the soil quality change.
Benefits for the fungi:
When the plant is supplied with the required materials for the photosynthesis process, it will eventually produces the nutrients and sugars such as glucose and sucrose. This can be easily again utilized by the fungi and aid in their growth and multiplication.
Simple fruits are a fascinating aspect of plant biology. They are an essential part of our diet and come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and flavors. In this article, we will explore the definition and characteristics of simple fruits, as well as delve into their anatomy and importance in plant reproduction.
Definition of Simple Fruit
A simple fruit is a type of fruit that develops from a single ovary of a flower. It is one of the basic fruit types, along with other types such as aggregate fruits and multiple fruits. Examples of simple fruits include apples, bananas, cherries, berries, peaches, and pears.
Characteristics of Simple Fruit
Simple fruits possess certain characteristics that distinguish them from other types of fruits. These characteristics include:
Fruit Anatomy: Simple fruits consist of three main parts: the exocarp (outer layer), mesocarp (middle layer), and endocarp (inner layer). The exocarp can be smooth or rough, while the mesocarp and endocarp can vary in texture and thickness depending on the fruit type.
Types of Simple Fruits: Simple fruits can be further classified into two main categories: fleshy fruits and dry fruits. Fleshy fruits, such as apples and peaches, have a soft and juicy mesocarp. Dry fruits, on the other hand, have a hard and dry mesocarp, like the case of nuts and grains.
Seed Dispersal: Simple fruits play a crucial role in seed dispersal. They have evolved various mechanisms to ensure the dispersal of their seeds, such as being eaten by animals and then excreted in a different location. This allows plants to colonize new areas and increase their chances of survival.
Plant Reproduction: Simple fruits are an integral part of the plant‘s reproductive process. They develop after successful pollination and fertilization of the flower‘s ovary. The fruit protects the developing seeds and provides them with nutrients until they are ready for dispersal.
Simple fruits are not only important for plant reproduction but also have significant agricultural and horticultural value. They are widely cultivated for their delicious flavors, nutritional benefits, and economic importance. They form a major part of our diet and contribute to our overall health and well-being.
Examples of Simple Fruits
Fruits are not only delicious but also come in a wide variety of types. In this section, we will explore different examples of simple fruits. Simple fruits are those that develop from a single ovary in a single flower. They can be categorized into various types based on their characteristics and structure. Let’s take a closer look at some examples of simple fruits.
Simple Fleshy Fruit Examples
Simple fleshy fruits are juicy and succulent, making them a delightful treat for our taste buds. Some common examples of simple fleshy fruits include:
Apple: This popular fruit belongs to the Rosaceae family and is known for its crisp texture and sweet or tart flavor. Apples are not only delicious but also packed with nutrients, making them a healthy snack choice.
Banana: Bananas are one of the most widely consumed fruits worldwide. They belong to the Musaceae family and are known for their creamy texture and natural sweetness. Bananas are a great source of potassium and dietary fiber.
Cherry: Cherries are small, round fruits that come in various colors, including red, yellow, and black. They belong to the Rosaceae family and have a sweet and tangy flavor. Cherries are often enjoyed fresh or used in desserts and jams.
Stone fruits, also known as drupes, are characterized by their hard, stony pits or stones that enclose the seed. Here are a few examples of stone fruit drupes:
Peach: Peaches are delicious fruits that belong to the Rosaceae family. They have a fuzzy skin and a sweet, juicy flesh. Peaches are rich in vitamins A and C, and they make a refreshing addition to both sweet and savory dishes.
Pear: Pears are another type of stone fruit that belongs to the Rosaceae family. They have a smooth skin and a sweet, slightly grainy flesh. Pears are a good source of dietary fiber and are often enjoyed fresh or used in salads and desserts.
Pome – Accessory Fruit Examples
Pomes are a unique type of simple fruit that develops from the receptacle tissue surrounding the ovary. Here are a couple of examples of pome fruits:
Apple: As mentioned earlier, apples are a type of pome fruit. They have a core containing seeds surrounded by a fleshy, edible tissue. Apples are widely cultivated and come in a variety of colors and flavors.
Pear: Similar to apples, pears are also considered pome fruits. They have a core with seeds and a sweet, juicy flesh. Pears are enjoyed both fresh and cooked, and they add a delightful flavor to various dishes.
Simple Dry Fruit Examples
Simple dry fruits are those that have a dry and hard pericarp or outer covering. Here are a few examples of simple dry fruits:
Berry: Berries are small, juicy fruits that come in a variety of colors and flavors. They have a thin skin and contain multiple seeds. Examples of berries include strawberries, blueberries, and raspberries.
Legume: Legumes, such as peas and beans, are also considered simple dry fruits. They have a tough outer covering that splits open when mature, releasing the seeds. Legumes are not only nutritious but also a valuable source of plant-based protein.
Simple aggregate fruits are formed from multiple ovaries in a single flower. An example of a simple aggregate fruit is the raspberry. Raspberries are small, red fruits that consist of multiple small drupelets fused together. They have a sweet and tangy flavor and are often used in desserts and jams.
Example of a Fruit Vegetable
While most fruits are sweet and consumed as snacks or desserts, there are some fruits that are commonly used as vegetables in culinary preparations. One such example is the tomato. Tomatoes belong to the Solanaceae family and are technically classified as fruits due to their botanical characteristics. However, they are often used as a vegetable in savory dishes and salads.
So, these are just a few examples of simple fruits. From fleshy fruits like apples and bananas to stone fruit drupes like peaches and pears, the world of fruits offers a wide range of flavors and textures. Whether you enjoy them fresh, cooked, or in various dishes, fruits not only satisfy our taste buds but also provide us with essential nutrients for a healthy diet.
Nutritional and Culinary Aspects of Simple Fruits
Simple fruits are a diverse group of agricultural produce that play a significant role in our diet and culinary practices. From the familiar apple and banana to the delightful cherry and berry, and the juicy peach and pear, simple fruits come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and flavors. Understanding their nutritional value, culinary uses, health benefits, and potential allergies or precautions is essential for incorporating them into our daily lives.
Nutritional Value
Simple fruits are not only delicious but also packed with essential nutrients that contribute to our overall health and well-being. They are rich in vitamins, minerals, fiber, and antioxidants, making them an excellent addition to a balanced diet. Different types of simple fruits offer varying nutritional profiles, but they generally provide a range of vitamins such as vitamin C, vitamin A, and folate. They also contain minerals like potassium, magnesium, and calcium, which are vital for maintaining healthy bodily functions.
Here is a table showcasing the nutritional value of some common simple fruits:
Fruit
Vitamin C (mg)
Vitamin A (IU)
Fiber (g)
Potassium (mg)
Apple
8.4
98
2.4
195
Banana
8.7
76
2.6
358
Cherry
0.4
25
1.6
222
Berry
9.7
17
5.3
162
Peach
6.6
570
2.0
190
Pear
4.3
36
3.1
116
Culinary Uses
Simple fruits are incredibly versatile in the culinary world. They can be enjoyed in various ways, whether eaten raw, cooked, or incorporated into a wide range of dishes. Here are some popular culinary uses of simple fruits:
Raw Consumption: Many simple fruits, such as apples, bananas, and berries, are commonly consumed raw as a healthy snack or added to salads and smoothies for a burst of natural sweetness and nutrition.
Baking and Desserts: Simple fruits like cherries, peaches, and pears are often used in baking pies, tarts, and cakes, adding a delightful flavor and texture to these delectable treats.
Preserves and Jams: Fruits like berries and cherries are perfect for making delicious preserves, jams, and spreads that can be enjoyed on toast, scones, or as a topping for yogurt and ice cream.
Sauces and Dressings: Some simple fruits, such as apples and pears, can be cooked down into flavorful sauces and dressings that complement savory dishes like roasted meats or salads.
In addition to their delightful taste and culinary versatility, simple fruits offer numerous health benefits. Incorporating them into your diet can contribute to:
Improved Digestion: Simple fruits are an excellent source of dietary fiber, which aids in digestion and helps prevent constipation.
Boosted Immunity: Many simple fruits, especially those rich in vitamin C, like oranges and strawberries, can help strengthen the immune system and protect against common illnesses.
Heart Health:The potassium content in simple fruits, such as bananas and peaches, supports heart health by helping to regulate blood pressure and reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
Antioxidant Protection: Simple fruits are packed with antioxidants that help combat oxidative stress and reduce the risk of chronic diseases, including certain types of cancer.
Allergies and Precautions
While simple fruits are generally safe and beneficial for most people, it’s important to be aware of potential allergies and take necessary precautions. Some individuals may have allergies to specific fruits, such as apples or cherries, which can cause allergic reactions ranging from mild itching to more severe symptoms like difficulty breathing. If you suspect an allergy, it’s best to consult a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and guidance.
Additionally, it’s essential to practice proper fruit handling and storage to prevent contamination and ensure optimal freshness. Washing fruits thoroughly before consumption and storing them in appropriate conditions can help minimize the risk of foodborne illnesses.
How to Make a Simple Fresh Fruit Salad
Are you looking for a refreshing and healthy snack? Look no further than a simple fresh fruit salad! Packed with vitamins, minerals, and natural sweetness, this colorful dish is a delightful way to enjoy a variety of fruits. Whether you’re a fruit enthusiast or just looking to incorporate more fruits into your diet, making a fruit salad is quick, easy, and customizable to your taste preferences. So let’s dive in and learn how to create a delicious fruit salad that will satisfy your cravings!
Choose a Variety of Fresh Fruits
The first step in making a fruit salad is to select a variety of fresh fruits. The options are endless, so feel free to get creative and experiment with different combinations. Basic fruit types such as apples, bananas, cherries, berries, peaches, and pears are great choices to start with. You can also explore exotic fruits like tropical varieties if you’re feeling adventurous. Remember, the key is to choose fruits that are ripe and in season for the best flavor and nutritional value.
To give you an idea, here are some popular fruits you can include in your salad:
Apple
Banana
Cherry
Berry
Peach
Pear
Feel free to mix and match these fruits or add your own favorites to create a unique blend that suits your taste buds.
Wash and Prepare the Fruits
Once you have selected your fruits, it’s important to wash them thoroughly to remove any dirt or residue. Start by rinsing them under cool running water. For fruits with a tougher skin like apples or pears, you can use a brush to gently scrub away any impurities. After washing, pat the fruits dry with a clean towel or paper towel.
Next, it’s time to prepare the fruits for the salad. Peel and chop fruits like apples and pears into bite-sized pieces. For smaller fruits like berries or cherries, you can leave them whole or slice them in half. Bananas can be sliced or diced, depending on your preference. The goal is to have uniform-sized pieces that are easy to eat and enjoy.
Combine and Toss the Fruits
Now that your fruits are ready, it’s time to combine them in a bowl. Gently toss the fruits together to ensure an even distribution. This will help to blend the flavors and create a harmonious mix of textures. You can use a large spoon or salad tongs to gently toss the fruits without crushing them.
Add a Dressing (Optional)
If you prefer a little extra flavor or sweetness, you can add a dressing to your fruit salad. While it’s optional, a dressing can enhance the overall taste and make your salad more appealing. Some popular dressing options include a drizzle of honey, a squeeze of fresh lemon or lime juice, or a sprinkle of cinnamon. Be creative and experiment with different combinations to find your favorite dressing.
Serve and Enjoy!
Your simple fresh fruit salad is now ready to be served and enjoyed! Transfer the salad to individual bowls or plates and garnish with a sprig of mint or a sprinkle of chopped nuts for an added touch. This delightful dish is perfect for any occasion, whether it’s a quick snack, a side dish for a meal, or a refreshing dessert.
Remember, fruit salads are best enjoyed fresh, so try to consume them shortly after preparing. However, if you have leftovers, you can store them in an airtight container in the refrigerator for up to a day. Just keep in mind that some fruits may become softer or release juices over time.
So why wait? Grab your favorite fruits, follow these simple steps, and indulge in a delicious and nutritious fruit salad today!
Frequently Asked Questions
What is a fruit? Can you give an example of a fruit?
A fruit is a mature ovary of a flowering plant that typically contains seeds. It is the part of the plant that develops from the fertilized ovule after pollination. Fruits come in various shapes, sizes, and flavors. Some common examples of fruits include apples, bananas, cherries, berries, peaches, and pears.
What is a simple fruit? Can you provide examples of simple fruit?
A simple fruit is a fruit that develops from a single ovary of a single flower. It is the most common type of fruit and can be either fleshy or dry. Examples of simple fruits include apples, bananas, cherries, berries, peaches, and pears.
What are the characteristics of simple fruits? Can you provide examples?
Simple fruits have a few distinct characteristics. They develop from a single ovary, have a single seed or multiple seeds, and can be either fleshy or dry. Fleshy simple fruits, such as apples and peaches, have a soft and juicy texture. Dry simple fruits, such as bananas and cherries, have a harder and less juicy texture.
What is a fibrous fruit? Can you provide examples of fibrous fruits?
A fibrous fruit is a type of fruit that has a tough and fibrous outer layer. This outer layer is often made up of thickened and hardened tissues. Examples of fibrous fruits include coconuts, pineapples, and dates. These fruits have a unique texture and are often used in various culinary dishes.
What is a drupe? Can you provide an example of a drupe that is a fruit?
A drupe is a type of fruit that has a fleshy outer layer and a hard inner layer surrounding a single seed. It is often referred to as a stone fruit. An example of a drupe that is a fruit is a peach. The outer layer of the peach is soft and juicy, while the inner layer is hard and surrounds the seed.
How can I make a simple fresh fruit salad?
Making a simple fresh fruit salad is easy and refreshing. Here’s a basic recipe to get you started:
Ingredients:
– Assorted fresh fruits (such as apples, bananas, berries, and grapes)
– Honey or lemon juice (optional)
Instructions:
1. Wash and prepare the fruits by peeling, slicing, or chopping them into bite-sized pieces.
2. In a large bowl, combine the fruits and gently toss them together.
3. If desired, drizzle some honey or lemon juice over the fruit salad for added sweetness or tanginess.
4. Serve the fruit salad chilled and enjoy!
Feel free to customize your fruit salad by adding other fruits or toppings of your choice. It’s a versatile and healthy dish that can be enjoyed as a snack or a side dish.
What is an example of a fruit vegetable?
A fruit vegetable is a term used to describe a vegetable that is botanically classified as a fruit. One example of a fruit vegetable is the tomato. Although commonly used as a vegetable in culinary preparations, the tomato is actually a fruit because it develops from the ovary of a flower and contains seeds.
What is the simple definition of a fruit?
In simple terms, a fruit is the mature ovary of a flowering plant that typically contains seeds. It is the part of the plant that develops from the fertilized ovule after pollination. Fruits come in various shapes, sizes, and flavors and are an important part of our diet. They provide essential nutrients and are often enjoyed for their delicious taste.
Remember to include a variety of fruits in your diet to reap the benefits of their nutritional value. Whether you prefer tropical fruits or temperate fruits, there are plenty of options to choose from. Enjoy the diverse world of fruits and explore different varieties to add a burst of flavor and health to your meals.
Does fruit have simple or complex carbs?
Fruits are not only delicious but also packed with essential nutrients. When it comes to carbohydrates in fruits, they can be classified as either simple or complex carbs. Let’s explore this further.
Does fruit have simple sugars?
Yes, fruits do contain simple sugars. These sugars are naturally occurring and provide a quick source of energy for our bodies. However, it’s important to note that the sugar in fruits is different from the added sugars found in processed foods. The natural sugars in fruits come bundled with fiber, vitamins, and minerals, making them a healthier choice.
To understand the carbohydrate content of different fruits, let’s take a look at some basic fruit types and their characteristics:
Apple: Apples are a popular fruit known for their crisp texture and sweet taste. They contain a mix of simple and complex carbs, with a higher proportion of simple sugars like fructose.
Banana: Bananas are a great source of energy and are rich in potassium. They are known for their high content of simple sugars, mainly fructose and glucose.
Cherry: Cherries are small, juicy fruits that are packed with antioxidants. They contain simple sugars like fructose and glucose.
Berry: Berries, such as strawberries, blueberries, and raspberries, are low in calories and high in fiber. They contain a mix of simple and complex carbs, with a slightly higher proportion of simple sugars.
Peach: Peaches are juicy fruits with a sweet and tangy flavor. They contain simple sugars like fructose and glucose.
Pear: Pears are known for their juicy and grainy texture. They contain a mix of simple and complex carbs, with a higher proportion of simple sugars.
It’s important to note that the sugar content in fruits can vary depending on their ripeness and variety. Generally, riper fruits tend to have a higher sugar content.
In addition to their carbohydrate content, fruits also provide a wide range of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. They are an essential part of a balanced diet and can be enjoyed in various forms, such as fresh, frozen, or dried.
So, while fruits do contain simple sugars, they also offer a host of other beneficial nutrients that make them a healthy choice for snacking or incorporating into your meals. Remember to enjoy fruits in moderation as part of a well-rounded diet.
Simple fruits are those that develop from a single ovary of a single flower. They can be either fleshy, like apples and peaches, or dry, like nuts and grains. They are a basic type of fruit in botanical and horticultural terms.
Can you give some examples of simple dry dehiscent fruits?
Simple dry dehiscent fruits are those that split open at maturity to release their seeds. Examples include legumes (like peas and beans), capsules (like poppy seeds), and follicles (like milkweed).
Does fruit contain simple or complex carbohydrates?
Fruits primarily contain simple carbohydrates, specifically fructose, which is a type of simple sugar. They also contain fiber, which is a complex carbohydrate, but in smaller amounts.
What are the characteristics of simple fruits and can you give some examples?
Simple fruits develop from a single ovary of a single flower. They can be fleshy, like apples, bananas, and cherries, or dry, like wheat and nuts. Their main purpose is seed dispersal, and they play a crucial role in plant reproduction.
How can I make a simple fruit salad at home?
To make a simple fruit salad, choose a variety of ripe fruits such as apples, bananas, berries, and peaches. Wash and chop the fruits into bite-sized pieces, then mix them together in a bowl. You can add a squeeze of lemon juice to prevent the fruit from browning and a drizzle of honey for extra sweetness if desired.
What is an example of a fruit vegetable?
A fruit vegetable is a botanical fruit that is commonly considered and used as a vegetable in culinary contexts. Examples include tomatoes, cucumbers, and bell peppers.
Can you provide examples of simple aggregate and multiple fruits?
Aggregate fruits develop from multiple ovaries of a single flower, like strawberries and raspberries. Multiple fruits develop from the ovaries of multiple flowers, like pineapples and figs.
Does fruit contain simple sugars?
Yes, fruits contain simple sugars, primarily in the form of fructose. This is what gives fruit its sweet taste. However, fruit also contains fiber, water, and various beneficial compounds, so it is much healthier than refined sugar products.
What are examples of simple fleshy fruits?
Simple fleshy fruits develop from a single ovary and have a soft texture when ripe. Examples include apples, bananas, peaches, and tomatoes.
Can you explain what a simple dry fruit is?
A simple dry fruit develops from a single ovary and has a dry pericarp(fruit wall) at maturity. They can be further classified as dehiscent (splitting open to release seeds) or indehiscent (not splitting open). Examples include nuts (indehiscent) and poppy seeds (dehiscent).
There are many species in the Plane tree. The species of the Plane tree include: Platanus × acerifolia (P. occidentalis × P. orientalis; syn. P. × hispanica, P. × hybrida), Platanus chiapensis , Platanus gentry, Platanus kerrii , Platanus mexicana , Platanus oaxacana , Platanus occidentalis , Platanus aedowskii , Platanus orientalis , Platanus racemosa , Platanus wrightii.
Mulberry:
Kingdom: Plantae, Clade: Tracheophytes, Clade: Angiosperms, Clade: Eudicots, Clade: Rosids, Order: Rosales, Family: Moraceae, Tribe: Moreae, Genus: Morus. The scientific/ Botanical name/ Binomial Nomenclature name of mulberry is Morus alba.
Around 1500 to 2000 flowers combine / merge and form one single breadfruit. It is very much similar to that of mulberry and jackfruit in their inflorescence.
Fig:
Kingdom: Plantae, Clade: Tracheophytes, Clade: Angiosperms, Clade: Eudicots, Clade: Rosids, Order: Rosales, Family: Moraceae, Genus: Ficus, Subgenus: F. subg. Ficus, Species: F. carica. The scientific/ Botanical name/ Binomial Nomenclature name of Fig is Ficus carica.
Figs are very well known for their nutritional properties when eaten dry or fresh or in the form of jam, jelly. In figs, the kind of multiple fruit is called the syconium. The inflorescence in fig is the flask shaped structure which is called the syconium inflorescence.
Jackfruit:
Kingdom: Plantae, Clade: Tracheophytes, Clade: Angiosperms, Clade: Eudicots, Clade: Rosids, Order: Rosales, Family: Moraceae, Genus: Artocarpus, Species: A. heterophyllus. The scientific/ Botanical name/ Binomial Nomenclature name of the jackfruit is Artocarpus heterophyllus.
Osage-orange resembles fruit guava inside and has thorny skin like jackfruit.
Milk Tree:
Kingdom: Plantae, Clade: Tracheophytes, Clade: Angiosperms, Clade: Eudicots, Clade: Rosids, Order: Malpighiales, Family: Euphorbiaceae, Genus: Euphorbia, Species: E. trigona. The scientific/ Botanical name/ Binomial Nomenclature name of the milk tree is Euphorbia trigona.
It is a perennial plant that has an African origin. The other names of milk trees are cathedral cactus, African milk tree, Abyssinian euphorbia, and high chaparral.
Custard-Apple:
Superorder: Magnolianae, Order Magnoliales, Family: Annonaceae – custard apples, Genus: Annona L., Species: Annona reticulata L. – custard apple.
Kingdom: Plantae, Clade: Tracheophytes, Clade: Angiosperms, Clade: Magnoliids, Order: Magnoliales, Family: Annonaceae, Genus: Annona, Species: A. glabra. The scientific/ Botanical name/ Binomial Nomenclature name of the pond apple of Annona glabra.
The fruit of pond apple contains 100 or even more light yellowish brown seeds, which are about 1 cm long.
What are multiple fruit examples? How are they formed?
As we just saw in the above lines, Multiple fruits are the structural elements- fruits that are formed from multiple flowers.
We know that a seed is sown, the shoot system and root system emerges, from the shoots the stem branches come out and then the leaves and flower, from which the fruit emerges from the flower that is produced.
So, what exactly happens here is that the plant produces several flowers, all these flowers mature and form separate fruiting bodies. Now these clusters or groups of fruiting bodies combine all together and produce a single fruit.
Thus, all the flowers combine, to be more clear Multiple means many or several, Multiple flowers combine and produce this fruit and so it is called the Multiple fruit.
Gravitropism is the growth response of a plant in which the shoot system grows against the gravitational force and the root system grows towards the gravitational force.
We know about gravity or gravitation ia a natural concept in which every object or living being with mass or energy is attracted to each other. It is simply said as the universal force of attraction.
Gravitropism is also called Geotropism.
This article completely explains the gravitropism plant example, types and what are all the different plant, trees seen in the various parts of earth with images.
General Gravitropism in Plants- Positive Gravitropism plant Example :
Hypocotyls are the portion of the embryo from which the tip emerges.
The embryo elongates and a small curve emerges.
The region below the cotyledons and above the seedlings is called the hypocotyls.
The gravitropism or geotropism in the Hypocotyls is very well discussed in a review article Plant Gravitropism- LAZY Gene Family.
Gravitropism in plant organ- Inflorescence stems of dicot:
Inflorescence is the arrangement of the flower body in a plant.
The Inflorescence stems of dicot shows negative gravitropism or negativegeotropism as they grow upwards or against gravity.
The gravitropism in the Inflorescence stems of dicot is very well discussed in a review article Plant Gravitropism- LAZY Gene Family.
Gravitropism in plant organ- Coleoptiles:
Coleoptiles is a sharp protective sheath that emerges from the embryo
Coleoptiles show negative geotropism or negative gravitropism as the Coleoptiles grow upwards that is against gravity.
The gravitropism in the Coleoptiles is very well discussed in a review article Plant Gravitropism- LAZY Gene Family.
Gravitropism in plant organ- Pulvini of monocots:
Pulvinus is a region in the plant at the base of the leaves stalk, which is an enlarged region specially for the rigidity.
Pulvini of monocots show negative geotropism or negative gravitropism as the Pulvini of monocots grows upwards that is against gravity.
The gravitropism or geotropism in the Pulvini of monocots is very well discussed in a review article Plant Gravitropism– LAZY Gene Family.
Gravitropism in plant organ- Rhizoids
Rhizoid are the thin filament that is present near the roots and possess the same function of the roots
They aid in the nutrients assimilation and absorption all over the body.
Rhizoids show negative geotropism or negative gravitropism as the Rhizoids grow upwards that is against gravity.
The gravitropism in the Rhizoids is very well discussed in a review article Plant Gravitropism- LAZY Gene Family.
Gravitropism in plant organ-Protonema of algae and moss
Protonema of Algae and moss is a filament-like structure that will eventually form the gametes in future; basically they are the young body of gametophytes.
Protonema of Algae and moss show negative geotropism or negative gravitropism as the Protonema of Algae and moss grow upwards that is against gravity.
The gravitropism in the Protonema of Algae and moss is very well discussed in a review article Plant Gravitropism- LAZY Gene Family.
Fixed plants are the aquatic plants to which the roots are attached or adhered to the mud or sand that is present in the bottom of the pond. Their roots are fixed to the base of the pond so they are called fixed plants.
Before we get into the fixed plant example and their description, we need to know about the characteristics of fixed plant examples.
What are the features of fixed plant example?
Fixed plants are the type of aquatic plants in which their root system is attached to the bottom of the water resource, preferably a pond and the other shoots are on the top of the water.
The leaves of the fixed plant are very flat and disc in shape that is seen floating above the surface of the water.
The stomata in the leaves are also seen visibly as they are present on the upper side.
Fixed plant bodies are very light weight.
The stem of the fixed plant is hollow and light so that they can float and they do not get damaged in the flowing water.
The complete body of the fixed plant is so flexible that they do not get affected by the water current.
Lotus is well known to each and every person especially in India as it is the “National flower of India”.
The Kingdom to which the commonly known Lotus falls is Plantae
The Division of the fixed plant – lotus, is Magnoliophyta.
The Class of Lotus is Magnoliopsida.
The lotus plant falls under the Order : Proteales.
The Family name of the lotus plant is Nelumbonaceae.
The Genus of lotus is Nelumbo.
The Species of lotus plant is N. nucifera.
Their ScientificName is “Nelumbonucifera”.
They grow in different parts of India and they have their own trivial name based on the locality they are present in.
The other alternative names for the lotus are Ambal, Thamarai, Suriya kamal, Padma, Ambuja, Pankaja, Blue Lotus, Indian Lotus, Sacred Water lily, bean of India, Kamala, Kanwal, Kamal.
The leaves of the lotus plant are very flat and plane in shape that is seen floating above the surface of the water (Please refer to the image above).
The stomata in the lotus are also seen visibly as they are present on the upper side(Please refer to the image above).
Lotus flowers are very light weight and they are well known for their vibrant colour(Please refer to the image above).
The stem of the lotus is fiber rich and hollow light in weight so that they can float and they do not get damaged in the flowing water(Please refer to the image above).
The complete body of the lotus is so flexible that they do not get affected by the water current.
The cultivation of lotus is with seeds that are sown on damp soil.
They require at least 6 hours of sunlight for preventing freezing.
“Nymphaea caerulea” is another species of Lotus plant.
The water lily is usually rounded flowers with wax coated petals and leaves.
The Kingdom of water lilies is Plantae.
The group of water lilies is Tracheophytes.
The Glade is Angiosperms for water lilies.
The Order water lily plant is Nymphaeales.
They fall under the Family of Nymphaeaceae.
The Genus of water lily plant is Nymphaea.
Their features are similar to that of lotus plants as they both fall under the fixed plant.
The leaves of the water lily plant are very flat and plain in shape that is seen floating above the surface of the water (Please refer to the image above).
The stomata in the water lily are also seen visibly as they are present on the upper side (Please refer to the image above).
Water lily flowers are very light weight and they are well known for their vibrant color (Please refer to the image above).
The stem of the Water lily is hollow and light in weight so that they can float and they do not get damaged in the flowing water (Please refer to the image above).
The complete body of the Water lily is so flexible that they do not get affected by the water current.
What makes the fixed plants different from the floating plants?
Fixed plants are the aquatic plants to which the roots are attached or adhered to the mud or sand that is present in the bottom of the pond.Their roots are fixed to the base of the pond so they are called fixed plants.
Floating plants are the aquatic plants whose roots are not attached to the base of the soil, they just float on water.
