ANKITA CHATTOPADHYAY

RNA are referred to as ribonucleic acid and are the molecule same to that of DNA. Just unlike them RNA has a single strand.

RNA polymerase is a RNA dependent enzyme used up for the RNA replication. It is also called as RNA replicase and is RNA replication enzymes. It helps in catalyzing the process of getting the RNA replicated from a template of RNA.

Mostly it helps in getting the process of synthesis of the single strand of DNA fast and complementary to that of a given template of RNA. Thus it is totally different from that of the RNA polymerase that is dependent on DNA. This enzyme helps an organism to make the use of catalyst for getting the transcription of RNA done from a DNA template.

RNA is strand which has a backbone and is made up of ribose which is a sugar and is placed alternately and also has phosphate groups attached with it. It also has itself linked with sugar along with the four bases of nitrogen called the adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil. It can also be referred to be a molecule which is polymeric.

RNA is a nucleic acid and so is DNA. Just like the DNA, RNA also has been joined as a chain with its constituents being nucleotides but RNA is single stranded and seen in nature to fold onto itself not being double. Cellular living beings use messenger RNA to get itself pass the genetic code and also helps in directing the synthesis of few proteins.

Some of the molecules of RNA play a good role inside the cell by getting the biological process catalyzed with having the gene expression under control. It also helps in communicating several responses and sensing the responses to have the signals of the cell activated. One of the processes it is involved in is protein synthesis and also getting the ribosomes protein synthesized.

Some RNA molecules play a good role in the cell by catalyzing biological processes by controlling gene expression. It is also useful for communicating multiple responses, detecting the response and activating the cell’s signal. One of the processes involved is protein synthesis and ribosomal protein synthesis.

RNA replication

The replication of the genome is essential for the continuity of life. The molecular mechanism is very similar in all groups of organisms.

Many scientists consider RNA to be the first replicated macromolecule. Like DNA, RNA can, in principle, create a negative blueprint by spontaneous base pairing. Unlike double-stranded DNA, RNA can take a variety of spatial forms and therefore also functions as an enzyme that catalyzes its own replication.

Many bacteria divide once every thirty minutes, others replicate even faster. Eukaryotic cells only replicate their genome when new cells have to be created. This happens as a result of external signals, for example tissue loss or inflammation. The life cycle of eukaryhttps://lambdageeks.com/eukaryotic-cells-vs-bacterial-cells/otic cells underlies an accurately defined sequence of activities that can be divided into different phases.

However, the situation is different at the end of the chromosome, where the lack of base prevents the replication fork from proceeding. At the point on the lagging strand where the DNA primase places the last RNA primer, the DNA polymerase will not be able to continue replication. The terminal DNA segment cannot replicate. DNA strands become shorter and shorter as the number of cell divisions increases.

To protect themselves against the rapid shortening of the DNA, eukaryotic chromosomes possess sequence repeats (telomeres) at their extremities, which do not code for proteins. Since the telomeres do not contain any vita;l information, the key parts of the DNA are protected. The telomeres get shorter each time a cell divides. The length of these so-called telomere caps defines the number of possible divisions and hence the lifespan of a cell. 

RNA replication enzymes in eukaryotes

Eukaryotes are the organism that has a cell and the cell is enclosed inside a nuclear envelope. They also have other organelles with membrane.

At the level of the eukaryotes, the replication fork there is a polymerase seen for replication which is three in number and is a complex that helps the DNA get itself replicated. The main RNA replication enzyme is said to be RNA polymerase.

The enzyme of RNA polymerase helps in getting the RNA synthesized by pointing a strand of DNA. This enzyme is also the one to play a role in copying of the DNA and its sequence into a sequence of RNA at the time of transcription. The process of RNA replication in the eukaryotes takes place in the nucleus.

The strand of DNA is made to undergo the process of replication and then transcription within the nucleus and the proteins are then made inside the cytoplasm. RNA thus is made to travel across the membrane of the nucleus which also surrounds it before the time it goes into translation. On addition to RNA polymerase there can also be the presence of other small materials for it.

On addition to the RNA polymerase, there is α-primase and two of the DNA polymerases called the δ and ε that are needed for the process of the strand of DNA to get replicated. The δ polymerase is the major or basic polymerase inside the leading path for synthesis and the rest being δ and ε are the basic polymerase for the lagging synthesis of strand.

Mostly the enzyme that are present inside the cell for the help of getting the smooth functioning of the RNA is mostly for the purpose off good function of all the chemical reactions. RNA polymerase enzyme helps to synthesize RNA by pointing a strand of DNA. This enzyme is also the enzyme that plays the role of copying DNA and its sequence into an RNA strand at the time of transcription.

RNA replication in eukaryotes takes place in the nucleus. Some RNA molecules play important roles in catalyzing biological processes within cells and regulating gene expression. It also helps to activate cellular signals by transmitting multiple responses and recognizing them. One of the techniques its miles concerned in is protein synthesis and additionally getting the ribosomes protein synthesized.

RNA replication enzymes in prokaryotes

Prokaryotes are the organism that have only one cell and cannot be seen without microscope. They do not have a nucleus unlike the eukaryotes.

Inside the prokaryotes, the origin for the point of replication to take place is only one in number and takes place in two of the opposing directions at the similar tome and is seen to occur inside the cytoplasm o the cell.

On the other if the eukaryotes are taken into consideration, they have many site for getting the process of replication conducted and with not being concerned to two paths. The process is made to be useful in several ways and is unidirectional at the part of replication inside the cell within the nucleus.

Inside the prokaryotes there are several ways to get done with the process of the DNA to get it replicated. They are dispersive, semi-conservative and conservative. The very common one to be described is the conservative one that says that the original DNA stays linked and the new made strands of it called the daughter strands are also made to connect.

The prokaryotes are divided only into two domains. One is said to be the bacteria and the other is archaea. The bacteria are said to be common and the one known widely for the cells of prokaryotes. They lack the entire inside membrane and have flagella for moving. The oldest known prokaryote is 3.5 billion years old.

Both of the type of organism found being eukaryotes and the prokaryotes use an enzyme that is common to both and that is the RNA polymerase which is used to transcribe the RNA from DNA. The prokaryotes use up only one RNA polymerase for all the types of RNA or transcription. They do have only one site for replication but has several sequences for getting it repeated in form of array.

RNA replication enzymes in bacteria

Bacteria are said to be the organism that live freely and are single cell also regard to as the prokaryotes. They are not much longer and can be seen at any place

The microbes of RNA have themselves replicated via either of the two ways. The first being the process of the RNA being dependent on the synthesis of RNA and the other being the process of reverse transcription that is the RNA dependent on synthesis of DNA and is followed by transcription.

Inside the bacteria, all the transcription that Is seen is by a single and special type of RNA polymerase. This polymerase has with it four of its varieties and catalytic units with only one regulatory unit called as the sigma. They only have one copy site but many strings to make it repeat in a loop. The manner is made to be beneficial in numerous methods and is unidirectional on the a part of replication within the mobileular in the nucleus.

Some bacteria are harmful, but most serve a useful purpose. They support many forms of life, both plant and animal, and they are used in industrial and medicinal processes. Bacteria are like eukaryotic cells in that they have cytoplasm, ribosomes, and a plasma membrane. Features that distinguish a bacterial cell from a eukaryotic cell include the circular DNA of the nucleoid, the lack of membrane-bound organelles.

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or RNA replicase is an enzyme that catalyzes the replication of RNA from an RNA template. DNA replication initiates at specific points, called the origins, where the DNA double helix is unwound. A short segment of RNA, called a primer, is then synthesized and acts as a starting point for new DNA synthesis. An enzyme called DNA polymerase next begins replicating the DNA by matching bases to the original strand.

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Cytosine is said to be one of the four bases in both of the nucleic acid being DNA and RNA and is denoted with the alphabet C.

With regards to the question is cytosine a pyrimidine, the answer is a yes. The base of cytosine is derived from the pyrimidine that is found in the nucleic acids and is a component that helps in getting the genes controlled for all of the living cells and in also a few of the coenzymes.

The structure of this base cytosine along with the rest is usually preferred to be taken as a ring of nine and double membrane structure adenine and the guanine as the base for purine and the structure of thymine for the six membrane ring line being single and uracil and cytosine are said to be pyrimidine.

The principal pyrimidine are said to be thymine, uracil and cytosine that consists of the uridine.  Along with thymidine and the cytidine ribonucleosides and all other corresponding deoxynulceotides. The building blocks of DNA are said to be both thymine and cytosine while uracil and cytosine are seen in only RNA.

Cytosine being one of the four bases of building blocks for RNA and DNA is also one among the four nucleotides that are seen in both of the strands’ and each of the cytosine base makes up a portion of a code. This base also has the ability to hold a unique feature that helps in binding of the double helix and is seen opposite to guanine which is also another base. The base of guanine seems to pair up with cytosine and thymine pairs with adenine in DNA.

Cytosine can be found as part of DNA, as part of RNA, or as a part of a nucleotide. As cytidine triphosphate (CTP), it can act as a cofactor to enzymes, and can transfer a phosphate to convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with guanine. Cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines which are structures composed of a single six-sided ring.

Why is cytosine a pyrimidine?

Cytosine is a derivative of pyrimidine and has an aromatic ring that is heterocyclic and have two of the substituents linked and is seen in both DNA and RBNA.  

With is cytosine a pyrimidine, it is a yes. The structure of this general cytosine with the remainder is generally preferred as a nine-ring structure, and the adenine and guanine double membrane is the basis for the purine and thymine structures for the six-loop membrane, and uracil and cytosine are given is being pyrimidine.

Any base which is same t that if the look of benzene which is a structure of six member ring ad contains the bases of thymine, uracil and cytosine as the bases acted for RNA and DNA can be said to be a pyrimidine. It helps in getting the genes to control the materials in the living cells.

This base also has the ability to hold a unique feature that helps in binding of the double helix and is seen opposite to guanine which is also another base. The base of guanine seems to pair up with cytosine and thymine pairs with adenine in DNA.  The paring of the bases are done with the help of hydrogen bonds that are said to be interstrand.

Adenine is said to make hydrogen bond that is two in number along with uracil and cytosine makes up three bonds of hydrogen with only the base guanine. Thus we can all say that the bases of guanine, cytosine and adenine are found in both RNA and DNA. So these are the common bases of nitrogen in both of the nucleic acids.

Cytidine is said to be a nucleoside of cytosine and in the base pairing model of Watson and Crick, it seem to make a hydrogen bond with guanine being three in number. The chemical formula for this is C4H5N3O and has molar weight of 111.1 g with melting point being 320 degree Celsius and decomposes at 593 K. Cytosine can be said to be a part of either DNA or a part of RNA or a portion of nucleotide.

The bases of nitrogen that are purine are feature but the presence of a single group of amino with adenine being at the sixth place of carbon and guanine sitting at the second carbon place. Just like this, the cytosine, thymine and the uracil have a simple structure of ring which is made from pyrimidine and thus these are the derivative of pyrimidine bases. Guanine, an organic compound belonging to the purine group, a class of compounds with a characteristic two-ringed structure

Why cytosine bonds with guanine?

The four of the bass in DNA and RNA are supposed to pair uo with each other according to the system of complimentary bond pairing and thus cytosine pairs up with the base of guanine in both.

Cytosine and guanine link up together and make a base pair as the free bond of hydrogen donor and the acceptor of hydrogen bond link up together with each other within space. Cytosine and guanine are said to be complementary to each.

In the basic pairing formula the thymine makes sup with adenine and the rest guanine binds with cytosine. There is a shift in the place of the nucleotides that makes a wobble I between the general guanine and normal thymine. Thus they are paired together. Within the DNA molecule, guanine bases located on one strand form chemical bonds with cytosine bases on the opposite strand. The sequence of four DNA bases encodes the cell’s genetic instructions.

The paring of both the bases is done by lining them up with three bonds of hydrogen. This makes a difference in the power in between the sets of Watson and Crick bases. Cytosine and guanine links up and thus has strong base pair than the adenine and thymine bond in DNA. Cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds between each other, while tyrosine and adenine form two hydrogen bonds.

The guanine paired with the cytosine has three hydrogen bonds. This makes the difference in strength between the two sets of Watson and Crick basses. Base pairs associated with guanine and cytosine are stronger than those associated with thymine and adenine in DNA. Within the DNA molecule, guanine bases located on one strand form chemical bonds with cytosine bases on the opposite strand.

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RNA splicing is the method in the field of molecular biology where the new made precursor messenger RNA transcription is converted to the mature mRNA.

There are several ways by which RNA splicing takes place sin nature and it is based on the splicing type on the base of the intron and the used catalyst that shall help it to take place. The types of RNA splicing are

• Self-splicing
• Alternate splicing
• tRNA splicing
• Trans-splicing
• Recursive splicing

Self-Splicing

It is the type of RNA splicing that takes place in few of the rare introns that are able to help promote the phosphodiester bond gaps.

This type or gap helps in making of the phosphodiester bond without the use of other proteins or rest spliceosomes. The introns that are involved in it are unique as they shall be able to mediate the excision from the precursor RNA and the ligation of the subsequent of the flanking of the exons in the very simple salt buffer.

This reaction is self-splicing and is worked upon by the tertiary part of the intron that shall help in making of the base for intron and helps it with the ability to recognize the sites of splicing for the precursor RNA and help it perform the ligation and the cutting part in the precise way possible.

The pattern that is there in these introns is able to perform being a ribozyme that shall help in the regulation of the whole process. There are there groups done for this part of RNA splicing and are termed to be Group I, Group II and Group III. The functions of each of the group are same but also different at the same time.

The Group I and Group II introns help in making of the process same to spliceosomes, t can be said that the introns are evolutionary related to spliceosomes. At this time, the 5’ is identified by a small element in the introns and is called the internal guide sequence. It consists of two reactions of Tran’s esterification an involved removal of the introns and the exon ligation.

Alternate splicing

It is an alternate process for having the RNA spliced at the time of gene expression that shall helps in a single gene to code itself for the other proteins.

Here in this type of RNA splicing the exons of the gene shall be taken into play from the resulted mRNA that is made from the gene. It states that the exons that are linked in several combinations lead to varying strands of messenger RNA.

It occurs in a good state in the eukaryotes. It has the ability to increase its diversity of proteins here which also can be encoded by the genome. In us, 95% of the multi existing genes are made to splice alternate. There are the presences of many nodes for this process that can be seen under which the most general form is the skipping of exon.

The process of this is based in the system if acting up the Trans proteins that shall link to the cis pint on the primary transcript to itself. Just like it, the proteins slicked activators also use it to promote the use of the particular site for the slice and the restores reside the use of this site. The method for this process is much variable and some of the examples for this is also been taken into eye mostly for the use of the process throughout.

tRNA splicing

There are many of the introns that interrupt the work of many genes in the eukaryotes and thus are removed by splicing and it is the vital step in expression of the genes.

In the eukaryotes there are four types of method that are used. The messenger RNA takes place in the phosphotransfer reaction on the complex and the dynamic machine. This function is related to the mechanism for two of the self-splicing way concerned with the introns of Group I and Group II.

The ones in the Group II are linked up with the identical way of splicing that helps in getting the common space of ancestor diverged. tRNA genes are also allowed to catalyze by all the three enzymes and the proteins and them are intrinsic of all the need for the hydrolysis of the ATP.

Mostly in bacteria that are self-spliced. It was seen that the process of this in the eukaryote and the archaea are not related buy its seen now that the enzyme first used here is tRNA endonuclease is seen in the evolution of the structures if the archaea and the eukaryote. There are many upright being surprised have been seen out of the boom and thus the stricture with way comparison of the enzyme from these of the two are in much diverge line.

Recursive splicing types of RNA splicing

Recursive splicing (RS) is an evolutionarily conserved process of removing long introns via multiple steps of splicing. It was first discovered in Drosophila and recently proven to occur also in humans.

RNA splicing is an eukaryotic gene expression process in which this genetic information is modified as RNA. During splicing, specific regions of the RNA copy are cleaved and adjacent sequences glued together. The parts of gene sequences that are expressed in proteins are called exons, because they are expressed.

RNA splicing is a eukaryotic gene expression process in which this genetic information is modified as RNA. The key difference between RNA splicing and substitution splicing is that RNA splicing is the process of joining exons together of the main copy of mRNA whereas alternative splicing is the process of creating distinct combinations of exons of the same one gene.

Trans-splicing

It is a special type of getting the RNA process. Here the exons are of two types being the primary transcript of RNA that are link to the end of the final part and the other is the ligated.

Normal type of it is called the cis type and consists of a single molecule. The Trans splicing makes a single RNA transcript from the several separate pre messenger RNA. This way can be used for molecular where they help with the mutate product of genes.

When there is a view of any fusion taking place in the transcripts during the normal process in human cell, his mechanism acts behind having the oncogenic transcript of fusion.  On the other hand, the translated proteins are made to slice and have many different types of amino acids sequence and gave different biological use.

Also this process get into the help allowing the human genome to have direct synthesis for many of the proteins that shall be an outcome expected from the 20,000 of the genes coding proteins. The transfer RNA are made to interrupt the introns but the process of splicing is actually different as it helps in getting them catalyzed and all takes place in Archaea, bacteria and the eukaryote.

What is RNA splicing?

RNA splicing is the way that makes the use of both precursor and mature RNA. It helps by getting the introns removed.

The very process of RNA splicing is started with getting then spliceosomes or the ribonucleoproteins linked with the introns that are seen on the site of RNA splicing. This linking of the ribonucleoproteins outcomes in the biochemical way and is called the Trans esterification in between the nucleotides.

At the section where the 3’OH is there of a concerned nucleotide on top of the intron that is defined with the assembly of spliceosome and outcomes to a attack of nucleophile on the very first nucleotide of the intron at the site of 5’ splice.  The spliceosomes are said to be a different part of protein group.

This shall result in getting the ends of 5’ and 3’ folded up making it look like a loop. On the other hand, the adjacent parts of the exons are also liked up together. At the end, finally the intron loop is kept detached from the sequence of the spliceosomes. The spliceosomes are also called to be ribozymes and are in control and regulation process.

After all the 1^st phase, the second transesterification reaction takes place at the time of ligation of the adjacent segment of the exon. Here, the 3’OH part of the 5’exon that is released and performs in an attack of electrophilic on the very start present nucleotide and exactly at the site of the last present nucleotide at the intron on the 3’ splice site.

This causes the bonding of the two parts of the exon with the intron part being removed. Earlier, the very intron is kept outside at the time of splicing and is thought to be a unit of junk. Thus, yet it is still observed now that these are a part of the method where the proteins are kept to be removed.

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Polymerase is any enzyme that helps in synthesizing the large chains of nucleic acids or the polymers. RNA polymerase helps in copying of the DNA sequence.

There are different types of RNA polymerase in both for prokaryotes and eukaryotes. All of the eukaryotes have several polymerases that can help in getting the genes transferred. There is RNA polymerase I, RNA polymer II and also the RNA polymerase III. Thus the types that are found are-

1. RNA polymerase I
2. RNA polymerase II
3. RNA polymerase III
4. RNA polymerase IV
5. RNA polymerase V

RNA polymerase I

This complex is used up for the production of ribosomes which is vital for the synthesis machine of cellular proteins that helps in its growth along with getting to underline may of the other functions. The accurate transcription of human rRNA genes by RNA polymerase I requires two transcription factors, upstream binding factor. Pol I is a 590 kDa enzyme that consists of 14 protein subunits.

RNA polymerase II

It is responsible for transcription of nuclear genes encoding messenger RNA and some small nuclear RNAs. Twelve of its subunits have identical or related counterparts in RNA polymerase II (Pol II) and RNA polymerase III (Pol III). The other two subunits are related to Pol II initiation factors and have structural homologues in Pol III. RNA polymerase allows in copying of the DNA sequence.

RNA polymerase III

RNA polymerase III (Pol III) transcribes a variety of small, stable RNAs that are essential for multiple cell signaling pathways, including premRNA splicing (U6 snRNA) and protein synthesis. The last for the eukaryotes is the polymerase III that gets the 5S ribosomal RNA gens and the tRNA transcribe.

RNA polymerase IV

RNA polymerase IV is an enzyme that synthesizes small interfering RNA that suppresses gene expression in plants. The RNA polymerase I gets the genes of ribosomal RNA transcribed, RNA polymerase II helps in getting the snRNA, the miRNA and the messenger RNA gets itself transcribed. RNA polymerase is seen in all types and kinds of organism and thus yet the composition and the number of the DNA.

RNA polymerase V

Determining the composition and diversity of the Pol IV and Pol V RNA subunits is an important step in understanding their function. The ones that are being used in two different types of species are a bit different from each other. The data is kept inside the molecule of the DNA and is made to copy in a new molecule for the messenger RNA. Just for taking an example the entire organism needs methods by which they can carry on transcription.

RNA polymerase is said to be an enzyme that makes to take part in copying of the sequence in DNA and help in get converted to a sequence of RNA at the time of a method called transcription. It is same as that of the molecule that is made of the protein subunits and is much complex. The enzyme called as RNA polymerase helps in controlling its acting to get flowed with transcription at the time where the information is kept stored.

Considering an example for just one type of bacteria has only a small type of RNA polymerase while in the yeast and the multicellular organism often said to be the eukaryotes do have three types of it and are all different. Despite these not so similar features there are also many other characters that make them alike by which they can come hands on with the method of transcription.

Types of RNA polymerase in prokaryotes

Prokaryotes are the organism that have only one cell and cannot be seen under naked eye. They are single called along with being unicellular and having either flagella or cilia for their movement. Bacteria and archaea can be its example.

Within the bacteria or the prokaryotes, the polymerase is seen in two phases. One of them being called the core enzyme that helps in getting the RNA synthesized but is not able to link the DNA with the targeted promoter.

The second part of it is the holoenzyme which helps in two ways one being the synthesis of RNA and the other gets to recognize the promoter. Along with this, the prokaryotes use a single type of RNA polymerase for its use. The organism being prokaryotes helps themselves by suing the same polymerase of type RNA to get the genes transcribed.

Four if the units in them are denoted by α, α, β, and β′ and these are a part of the core enzyme. These units kink all the time into a genes and then is transcribed and disassemble it after transcription is done. While the eukaryotes have three types of RNA polymerase in use it also uses up there of the DNA polymerase.

How many types of RNA polymerase in eukaryotes

The cells of the eukaryotes are one of the complex materials found in several ways that also consists of the term of the process transcription. These are the organism that have a nucleus and is covered inside the nuclear envelope.

Thus out of all the types of RNA polymerases eukaryotes take the use of three types of them. These types are typical in view to carry other types of organelles that have membranes just like the Golgi body and the mitochondria and also the chloroplasts that can be found in the algae and plants.

They are different in their type of unit they carry and also vary in number. There is also a variation seen in the type of class the three of each belong to. The three of them used are RNA polymerase I, RNA polymerase II and RNA polymerase III. The RNA polymerase I helps with the ribosomal RNA, the RNA polymerase II help with the transcription of messenger and the RNA polymerase III goes with the transfer RNA.

The RNA polymerase II helps with the encoding of the gens in proteins it is of more importance to the researchers that spy on the gene expression of the eukaryotes and its use. Taking into consideration, it is said that RNA polymerase II gets to bind the DNA with the promoter genes called as the TATA box that helps in the initiation of transcription.

All together having same motif for getting a small sequence of DNA these are the ones that have the core promoter. Despite these the changes in polymerase II gets to influence the genes that surround the DNA while recruiting the factors for transcription. Although they method of transcription is quite vital, they are contracted in the area of just effectiveness.

Types of RNA polymerase in bacteria

Bacteria are said to be organism having single cell and are microscopic that can be seen in millions of places in millions of forms covering in and out of a species.

Inside the bacteria despite being so many types of RNA polymerase there is the similar enzyme that helps in getting the messenger RNA synthesize and also the RNA that is not coded like that of ncRNA. There is a large size molecule that is called the RNAP.

The base of the enzyme contains of five units in it. In the bacteria they are just in one form of the rest for they are the prokaryotes. Bacteria are the organism that are actually ubiquitous and are almost free living ones. They have only one cell and have a large domain in its space.

In the bacteria, one polymerase stays function. It has four subunits for catalyst and only one regulatory unit called the sigma. With the curious fact, there are many factors of sigma that have been found and each of them looks at transcription fir a unique set of genes. Thus the factor for sigma are said to be discriminatory with each of them binding to a specific sequence of promoter.  .

Types of RNA polymerase in enzyme

In defining this enzyme in much similar terms it helps in synthesizing the RNA from any DNA template with using the help of helicase.

It is much vital for sustaining life and is seen in all the living beings and many other microbes. Based on the species, a polymerase of RNA can be a complex of protein or also a small unit or subunit that by each shows a lineage that is not dependent.

One is located in the archaea, bacteria and the eukaryotes and also shares a same base structure and method. Each of the eukaryotes has multiple polymerase of RNA that functions on its own style in synthesizing. RNA polymerase is said to be an enzyme that helps copy a DNA sequence and convert it into an RNA sequence by a method called transcription.

It is composed of protein subunits and is the same as a very complex molecule. An enzyme called RNA polymerase helps control the action of information stored in a DNA molecule so that it flows with transcription when it is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA. One is found in archaea, bacteria and eukaryotes and shares the same basic structure and methods.

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Cytosine is considered one among the nucleotides bases in both of the nucleic acids mainly DNA and RNA.

Cytosine is of the four bases in DNA and RNA with the function of cytosine being controlling of the hereditary material for the living cells and also in some serving as a coenzyme that shall act in conjunction with the enzymes in body.

The bases can be a derivative of both pyrimidine and purine. Cytosine on the other hand is a derivative of pyrimidine along with thymine or uracil and is seemed to be an aromatic heterocyclic ring which have two of the substitutes linked up. There is an amine group attached at the 4^th place and a keto group linked at the second position.

Cytosine is a pair of guanine and is vital in playing a metabolite for human. It is a metabolite of the Escherichia coli and a referral for mouse metabolite along with also for Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Cytosine helps in controlling many of the work in chemical reaction and getting data changed.

All of the bases do have a nucleoside of their own and the one for cytosine is called the cytidine. Considering the function of cytosine and the base pairing in the model of Watson and Crick, cytosine is seen to make there of the hydrogen bonds along with another base called the guanine that is the purine derivative. Aromaticity is a chemical property in which a conjugated ring of unsaturated bonds, lone pairs, or empty orbitals exhibit a stabilization stronger than would be expected by the stabilization of conjugation alone.

Cytosine can be found as a portion of DNA or RNA or even as a portion of any nucleotide. As a part of cytidine triphsophate it can play a part of co enzyme and can let the start for conversion of adenosine diphosphate to adenosine triphosphate. Cytosine is seemed to pair up with guanine in both the acids. In organic chemistry, a substituent is an atom or group of atoms substituted in place of a hydrogen atom on the parent chain of a hydrocarbon.

Structure of Cytosine

As a base of nitrogen, cytosine is made of three of the nitrogen atoms. It is also made of one carbon ring that makes it is a base of pyrimidine.

On the other hand purine is made of two carbon rings. Cytosine is referred to as pyrimidine along with thymine in DNA and the rest two are stated to be purine in DNA. RNA also has two of the pyrimidine, they are uracil and cytosine.

Inside the DNA the base of thymine and adenine are there in similar percentage and do always link together with each other. It then leaves the rest of them being cytosine to pair up with the guanine which is a double ring structure. Cytosine pairs with guanine in both DNA and RNA. Cytosine can sometimes loose electrons by mistake and become uracil. This is known as spontaneous deamination. If DNA repair enzymes such as uracil glycosylase do not repair the damage by cleaving uracil in DNA, a point mutation may result.

Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) both have a double ring structure and are called purines. Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) both have a single ring structure and are called pyrimidines. Because of their structural similarity, we usually refer the nine-member double rings adenine and guanine as purines, and six-member single-ring thymine, uracil, and cytosine are pyrimidines.

At the time when cytosine is one of the strands in the nucleic acid, the rest of the strands will be definite in having guanine to show up its bond and match. They are companions as they fit perfect collaborating with three bonds of hydrogen. Cytosine can also transfer easily into other bases and thus call the wild card base. Nucleotides containing cytosine can power chemical reactions and are involved in signaling inside the cell.

DNA is said to store information that helps in making and building of the cell. The transmission of the code is a task and the data for all the genetic transfer is stored in cytosine. It is replicated while the cell gets a duplicate copy and then makes the cell to divide. Heterocyclic compounds are organic compounds (those containing carbon) that contain a ring structure containing atoms in addition to carbon—such as sulfur, oxygen, or nitrogen—as part of the ring.

Function of cytosine

In the meteorites, there has been no traces of the base cytosine and thus its suggestion states that the first stands of the DNA or RNA had to be seen else to take the building block. 

Cytosine can be said to be a part of the nucleotide which is a molecule having a sugar and one or more of the phosphates. The time when the nucleotide gets connected they form the DNA and RNA said to the nucleic acids.

Cytosine recently found use in quantum computation. The first time any quantum mechanical properties were harnessed to process information took place on August 1st. It is termed to be a third in terms of codon in the RNA, cytosine is the synonym for uracil and are said to be interchangeable as known for its third base. When it is found to be in the second position in any codon, it is changeable.

An example for this can said to be UCU, the UCG, UCA and UCC and all of them are serine despite any one of them being the third base. There is also an enzymatic deamination that is active in the cytosine. Cytosine can be said to be 5-methycytosine by the APOBEC family of the cytosine. Cytosine-C5 DNA MTases catalyze the transfer of the methyl group from a cofactor molecule S-adenosyl-l-methionine. Purine biosynthesis differs from pyrimidine biosynthesis in that purines are formed first as a nucleotide, whereas pyrimidines are formed first as a free base

Codon in genetics is a rule set that is utilized for all the living ce;;s to convert the information encoded inside the genetic material and convert into proteins. The transfer in obtained by ribosome that links to the protein genic amino acid that is specific to the messenger RNA and uses the transfer RNA to carry them. Cytosine undergoing modifications are often located in clusters which are therefore repetitive in nature. Short-read based methods are unable to uniquely map short reads to repetitive regions, resulting in the under representation of these important regions.

It can be both useful and harmful for all the implications imposed on several processes of the cell as well as for the evolution in the organism. The outcome of the deamination onto the 5-hydromethylcytosine on the rest part seems to be hard and harmful to deal with. The coding of it is same to that of the entire organism. It is a pyrimidine base C₄H₅N₃O that codes genetic information in the polynucleotide chain of DNA or RNA — compare adenine, guanine, thymine, uracil.

The function of cytosine is-

• Each of the cytosine takes part in building of code for the cell
• It links with the other side guanine base and can also get itself changed to uracil. Cytosine forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine in DNA and RNA. This device, however, is unstable and can transform into uracil.
• Mostly inside the cell cytosine has a linked up extra group of methyl as a chemical
• They can also get into modifying of its bases that shall carry the epigenetic data.
• It can also be a carrier in having their energy carried out and also being a cofactor of CTP.
• Cytosine can help carry the genetic data for the molecules they have.
• Aromaticity is a chemical property in which the stability of a conjugated ring of unsaturated bonds, lone pairs, or empty orbitals is greater than can be predicted from conjugation alone.
• Cytosine forms the nucleoside cytidine when it binds to ribose, and deoxyribose forms deoxycytidine when it binds to deoxyribose.
• The methylation of this in cytosine is said to get the genes regulated to help them turn themselves on and off whenever needed.
• It’s a pyrimidine nucleobase, pyrimidone, and aminopyrimidine all rolled into one. The molecule has a planar shape, and in the DNA double helix, cytosine forms three hydrogen bonds with Guanine

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