Brayton and Otto cycles generate mechanical energy out of thermal energy. This article discusses in detail on the topic Otto cycle vs Brayton cycle.
Brayton cycle is used in jet engines whereas Otto cycle is used in SI engine vehicles. Lets find out what other differences and similarities exist between these cycles.
Major working parts used in Brayton cycle
A set of machines work together to make Brayton cycle possible.
The different working parts used in Brayton cycle are compressor, mixing chamber and turbine. Compressor compresses the air, fuel is added in mixing chamber where the compressed air and fuel interact. Finally, thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy by turbine.
Working of Brayton cycle
Air is used as working fluid in Brayton cycle. Minimum three processes are required to complete this cycle (Three processes for open cycle and four processes for closed cycle).
Following processes combine to make up Brayton cycle-
Isentropic compression- Process 1-2 represents isentropic compression in which air is compressed without changing its entropy.
Isobaric heat addition- Process 2-3 represents isobaric heat addition in which heat is added to the mixing chamber; heat combined with compressed air produces high thermal energy.
Isentropic expansion- Process 3-4 represents isentropic expansion in which the thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy. Rotation of turbine shaft represents mechanical energy.
Isobaric heat rejection- Process 4-1 represents isobaric heat rejection where the heat is removed from the working fluid and is sent further to get compressed for next cycle.
Image: Brayton cycle (2′ and 4′ represents actual cycle)
Major parts used in Otto cycle
The parts used in Otto cycle are much smaller than those used in Brayton cycle.
The parts used in Otto cycle are-
Piston- Piston performs up-and-down reciprocating motion that compresses the working fluid inside the cylinder.
Cylinder- Cylinder is the foundation of Otto cycle. Cylinder is the place where all the energy conversion takes place.
Valves- The suction and delivery valves are used for intake of working fluid and exit of exhaust gases respectively.
Working of Otto Cycle
Otto cycle uses steam as its working fluid.
Following processes take place in Otto cycle-
Isentropic compression- Process 1-2 shows isentropic compression of working fluid. The piston moves from BDC to TDC. The entropy of system is constant during this process hence it is called as isentropic compression.
Isochoric heat addition- Process 2-3 represents heat addition in the system. The piston remains at TDC and shows ignition of the working fluid.
Constant entropy expansion- Process 3-4 represents isentropic expansion (constant entropy expansion) where the piston moves from TDC to BDC. Since, the entropy remains constant throughout this process it is called as isentropic expansion.
Isochoric heat addition- Process 4-1 represents heat addition to constant volume. The piston remains stationary at BDC while heat gets rejected to atmosphere.
This cycle keeps repeating as piston moves to TDC.
Brayton cycle vs Otto cycle efficiency
Both cycles different processes and different working fluids. This affects the efficiency of the cycles.
The comparison of thermal efficiencies of Brayton cycle and Otto cycle is shown in the table below-
Thermal efficiency of Brayton cycle
Thermal efficiency of Otto cycle
Table: Brayton cycle efficiency Vs Otto cycle efficiency
Where,
rp is the compression ratio and Y is specific heat ratio.
Hence, for constant values of compression ratio, both the efficiencies have same values.
But in practice, Brayton cycles are used for larger values of compression ratios and Otto cycle is used for small values of compression ratio. Hence, the formula of efficiency may be same but their applications are different.
Why is Brayton cycle more suitable than Otto cycle?
Brayton cycle uses a gas turbine and compressor whereas Otto cycle uses piston cylinder arrangement for its working. Otto cycle is preferred for SI engines where one cannot fit a gas turbine and compressor in the vehicle.
Following points explain in detail about advantages of Brayton over Otto cycle-
For same values of compression and work output, Brayton cycle can handle a larger volume at small range of temperature and pressure.
A piston cylinder arrangement can’t handle large volume of low pressure gas. Hence, Otto cycle is preferred in vehicles.
In Otto cycle, the working parts are exposed to maximum temperature for a very short period of time and also it takes time to cool down. Whereas in gas turbine cycle, the working parts are exposed to high temperature all the time. In steady state process, the heat transfer from the machinery is difficult in constant volume process (ie Otto cycle) than at Constant pressure (ie Brayton cycle).
In this article, we’ll discuss Is Current The Same In Parallel Or Not. The parallel connection is known to divide the circuit into branches. So the entire current gets divided into those branches.
Parallel circuits consist of one or multiple branches. When the total current enters one branch, it splits up into respective branches. The branch currents are lower than the total amount of current. The branch current values depend upon the branch resistance. So, the current is different in parallel circuitry.
Is Current The Same In Parallel?- Illustrate
We know the current is different in parallel circuitry. Let us take an analogy to understand this phenomenon better. A person is rushing to reach the office as he is already late. There are two choices for him; A road with lesser traffic, and another road with heavy traffic jams. He will choose the first road as it’s less congested and less time-consuming.
An electron has multiple paths to flow in parallel. The electron selects the path with least opposition or resistance. This damages the circuit. Current splits according to the resistor value. These values vary with current inversely and decide the current in the paths. So, the current is distinct in parallel.
How to calculate current in a parallel circuit? Explain with a numerical example.
We use Ohm’s law to determine the quantity of current in parallel circuit configuration. We shall discuss the process with an easy mathematical illustration.
Figure 1 shows a parallel electrical circuit with four resistive components with 5 ohms, 10 ohms, 15 ohms, and 20 ohms, respectively. The supply voltage is 30 Volts. Our target is to find the total circuit current i and all the values of current passing through the four resistors. It is already known to us that, in a parallel circuit, the total current gets more than one path to flow.
Hence, it gets divided into smaller components that pass through the resistors. In this example, initially, we shall measure the entire circuit current and afterward go on to calculate the currents through each resistor.
So, the first stage is to know the equivalent network resistance. We know Req for parallel combination= product of four resistors/sum of products of resistors taking three at a time =5 x 10 x 15 x 20/5 x 10 x 15 + 10 x 15 x 20 + 15 x 20 x 5 + 20 x 5 x 10=2.4amp
The supply voltage is 30 Volts.
The total current I = 30/2.4=12.5 amp
Now, we shall find the currents through the four resistors. We know the current passing through any resistor in a parallel network= supply voltage/ value of that resistor.
The current flowing through every resistive component in a parallel circuit is neither the same nor constant.
We have previously described why it isn’t the same in parallel. It’s because of the division that occurs in branches with dissimilar resistance. Also, the current is not constant. The word ‘constant’ specifies a particular value. Just like the voltage, the current is also never a constant parameter. So, it cannot be said to be constant.
Compare the current measurements in series and parallel circuits with a mathematical example.
For this comparison, we shall take one parallel and one series combined circuits. Both the circuits contain three equal value resistors in respective configurations.
Figure 2 describes two circuits, one with series resistors, another with parallel resistors. All the three resistors in the series configured circuit are identical to those in the parallel configured circuit. Both the circuits receive 10 Volt supply voltage.
The equivalent resistance amount in series circuit = 2+4+8 = 14 ohm
So, I = 10/14 = 0.71 amp
The equivalent resistance amount in parallel circuit =2 x 4 x 8/2 x 4 + 4 x 8 + 2 x 8=1.14Ω
So, I = 10/1.14 = 8.77 amp
If, i1, i2, and i3 are the currents for the 2 ohm, 4 ohm, and 8 ohm resistors respectively,
Then, for the series configuration, I= i1=i2=i3 = 0.71 amp
For the parallel configuration, i1 = 10/2 = 5 amp
i2 = 10/4 = 2.5 amp
i3 = 10/8 = 1.25 amp
From the above derivations, we can understand how the different current components are calculated in both circuits.
Why does current change in parallel circuit but not in series circuit?
Parallel circuitry contains more than one path for the current to pass whereas there is only one path for current in the series circuitry.
Whenever, current enters any parallel network, it has to split in the branches proportionately. On the other hand, series circuits don’t face this compulsion as it has only one way for current flow. This is why current changes in parallel but not in series circuits.
Calculate the equivalent resistance between A and B in the parallel network shown below.
The electrical network depicted in the above image is nothing but the conjunction of a few parallel circuits. We’ll divide them and calculate the required current.
We shall first find out the equivalent resistance of ABC network. AB and BC are series connected resistors, so the equivalent resistance is 2+2= 4 ohm. This gets added to AC in parallel and becomes 4/2= 2 ohm. So now the network is reduced to figure 3.
We can further calculate similarly and get the following stages. Thus, finally the equivalent resistance obtained = 2 || 4 = 8/6 = 1.33 ohm.
When Is Current The Same In Parallel?
There is only one case when the branch currents in parallel circuitry can be identical. Let us discuss this with a general circuit configuration.
In the circuit portrayed above, we can see a parallel network comprising some resistors. The voltage supplied is V. We need to calculate the total current as well as the branch currents and compare between them. Let us first determine the total current.
So, total current I=V/Req = 3V/R
Req= Equivalent resistance of the network= R3/ (R2+ R2+R2) = R/3
Now, we’ll see the value of three individual resistor currents.
Current through the component R1=i1= V/R1= V/R
Current through the component R2=i2= V/R2= V/R
Current through the component R3=i3= V/R3= V/R
Hence, we can observe that i1=i2=i3
From this example, we can also derive a general formula that if a parallel network has N identical resistors, the equivalent resistance of such a network will be= the value of any resistor/N
The topic Brayton cycle Vs Rankine cycle gives us an idea that they both must be similar in some aspects. Both cycles are used to generate mechanical energy out of thermal energy.
The major difference between these cycles is the working fluid used. Rankine cycle uses liquid (mostly water) as working fluid whereas Brayton cycle uses gas (mostly air) as working fluid. This article does a comparative analysis on Brayton cycle vs Rankine cycle.
Major components used in Brayton cycle
Every cycle needs a set of machinery that helps achieve the desired output.
Mixing chamber- Heat is added to the compressed air that increases the temperature isobarically.
Turbine- Air is expanded in turbine, as turbine shaft rotates the air pressure reduces and temperature reduces. This process is isentropic expansion.
Image: Parts used in Brayton cycle (Image shows an Open Brayton Cycle)
Working of Brayton cycle
Brayton cycle generally uses atmospheric air as its working fluid. It takes minimum three processes to complete this cycle (An open cycle has three processes and closed cycle has minimum four processes).
The different processes that the working fluid undergoes in closed Ideal Brayton cycle are-
Isentropic compression- Ambient air is drawn inside the compressor and compressed isentropically.
Isobaric heat addition- Heat is added to the compressed air at constant pressure.
Isentropic expansion- Air is expanded in a turbine isentropically.
Isobaric heat rejection- Heat is rejected from the system at constant pressure.
Isentropic compression and expansion processes denote an ideal cycle. Usually, the process is not completely isentropic due to irreversibilities and friction losses in turbine and compressor. The isentropic efficiency of turbine and compressor denote the magnitude of useful output that can be obtained from given conditions.
Parts used in Rankine cycle
Rankine cycle produces mechanical energy from thermal energy of the working fluid. This is achieved by many components working in harmony.
The working components used in Rankine cycle are-
Pump- The low pressure liquid is pumped to boiler increasing its pressure.
Boiler- Heat is added to the working liquid inside the boiler. The heat addition process is isobaric. The high pressure liquid gets converted to high pressure steam inside the boiler.
Turbine- Steam is expanded in turbine. The high pressure steam is responsible for producing mechanical energy which is achieved by turbine shaft rotation.
Condenser- The low pressure steam is condensed inside the condenser. Condenser is nothing but a heat exchanger that extracts heat from the steam to convert it into liquid.
Working of Rankine cycle
Rankine cycle is used to produce mechanical energy from thermal energy of working fluid (in this case water) which in turn is used for generating electricity (shaft power of turbine is used to produce electricity).
Rankine cycle also works on four major processes. They are-
Isentropic compression (process 1-2): Pressure of working fluid increases in this process.
Isobaric heat addition (process2-3): High pressure liquid is subjected to heat inside the boiler where it gets converted into steam. The steam exits at high pressure and enters the turbine at point 3.
Isentropic expansion (process 3-4): The high pressure steam rotates the turbine propellers as a result turbine shaft starts rotating. During this process, the high pressure steam gets converted to low pressure steam. The low pressure steam enters the condenser.
Isobaric heat rejection- The steam gets converted back to liquid state inside the condenser. The heat is rejected from the steam at constant pressure as a result of which the steam gets converted to liquid.
Note that condenser and boiler are devices that change the state of working fluid without changing the temperature and pressure.
Rankine cycle and Brayton cycle efficiency
Efficiency is the measure of cycle’s effectiveness. The amount of output a cycle can deliver in a given amount of input is called the efficiency of a cycle.
The comparison of Rankine cycle efficiency and Brayton cycle efficiency is given below-
Subject of comparison
Rankine cycle
Brayton Cycle
Ideal efficiency
Actual efficiency
T-s Diagram
Table: Comparison of Rankine cycle efficiency and Brayton cycle efficiency Image credits: Rankine cycle by Home IITK
How to increase efficiency of Brayton cycle and Rankine cycle?
Efficiency is the ratio of output to input. To increase the efficiency of any cycle, one needs to increase output at constant input or decrease input for constant output or increase the output while reducing the input.
In both the cycles, same methods can be used to improve the efficiency. These methods are-
Regeneration– Steam from condenser is passed through turbine to increase inlet temperature before the steam enters the boiler.
Reheat- A secondary turbine is used that results in more work output.
Intercooling– Intercooler cools the gas after compression thereby making it available to be compressed again. This way the compressor work is reduced.
Combined regeneration, intercooling and reheat cycle– This cycle uses combination of regenerative cycle, reheat cycle and intercooling.
What are the two main types of Brayton cycle?
Brayton cycle may use regeneration, reheat, intercooling or sometimes all of them. But the foundational cycle in which such methods can be used are of two types.
The two basic forms of Brayton cycle are-
Open Brayton cycle- In Open Brayton cycle, the exhaust gases are spat out to the atmosphere. Each cycle uses new set of gas or working fluid.
Closed Brayton cycle- In Closed Brayton cycle, the exhaust gases are cooled and sent back to the compressor to be used again. This forms a complete cycle.
What is a combined cycle?
One combines two things to get more output or increase the efficiency of particular system. In a combined cycle, both Brayton and Rankine cycles are combined to derive more output from a given set of input.
Brayton cycle produces more power so it is called as topping cycle. The exhaust gases from this cycle are so hot enough that it can be used as source for a comparatively low power producing cycle that is Rankine cycle. In this case, it is also known as bottoming cycle.
The heat from the exhaust gases is recovered by waste heat recovery boiler in bottoming cycle. The steam/water gets heated to complete Rankine cycle.
This way the waste exhaust gases from one cycle can be used as source for another cycle.
A parallel circuit equips current to travel through different (distinct) or branches of the circuit. The current across paths can be distinct, but the voltage across each parallel path is identical. A circuit can be a parallel circuit or series circuit, or a combination of parallel and series circuits. There are several different parallel circuit examples.
Suppose there is more than one resistor connected between two circuitry nodes, then the resistors are connected in parallel with each other. In other words, when both the terminal of the resistors are connected respectively to each end of the other resistors. The value of resistance can be different or identical in parallel circuit combinations as a requirement. The voltage (or potential difference) over each resistor is identical in parallel combination as there is a variety of paths for current to flow. The value of current will vary with resistance in each path. If the value of resistance of each path is identical, then the current flow through each part will also become identical.
For example, if two resistors of the same resistance are connected in parallel with each other, then the current flowing through them will be the same. With Current Division rules the current into and out of each path of the circuit can be determined.
But when two resistors, R1 and R2, of different resistance, are connected in parallel, the current flowing through them will differ. As V=IR (Ohm’s Law) as V is the same for all parallel circuit components, the value of I depends on the value of R.
The whole parallel circuitry of the resistor can be replaced by a sole resistor of the value equal to the equivalent resistance of the overall parallel combination of the resistors.
The equivalent resistance represents the overall resistance effect of all the resistors connected in parallel.
Equation of equivalent resistance in parallel combination with resistor:
Where Re -> Equivalent resistance.
R1, R2, R3 … Rn -> Different resistance connected in parallel.
When two resistors (R) in parallel are of the same value, the equivalent resistance of both resistors is half of the one resistor (R).
Suppose there is more than one capacitor connected between two nodes of a circuit, then the capacitors are in parallel combination with each other. in other words, when both the terminals of the capacitor are connected respectively to each and other capacitors.
When capacitors are linked in parallel, the resulting capacitance (or total capacitance) equals the addition (or sum) of each capacitor’s capacitance in the combination.
Ct = C1 + C2+ C3 …..+ Cn
Where Ct-> total capacitance of the parallel combination.
C1, C2, C3 … Cn -> different capacitor connected in parallel.
Fig. Parallel circuit of Capacitors.
The voltage across each capacitor in parallel combination is the same, but the charge stored by each capacitor depends upon the value of capacitance of each capacitor, according to Q=CV. So as the capacitance of the capacitor varies, the stored charge will also change as the applied voltage across all the capacitors in parallel combination is identical.
For example, if three capacitors are linked in parallel, the capacitance of every piece capacitor can be distinct or identical. Suppose every capacitor connected in parallel is of exact capacitance. In that case, the charge stored by each capacitor will be the same, but if the capacitance of each capacitor is different, each capacitor will hold a different amount of charge. The total charge (Q) stored by the overall capacitor (in parallel combination) is the sum of individual charges.
Q = Q1 + Q2+ Q3
Where Q1, Q2, Q3 is the charge stored by the capacitor C1, C2, C3 respectively.
As we know Q= CV
So, Ct = C1V + C2V+ C3V
Ct = C1 + C2+ C3
Inductor in Parallel
Suppose there is more than one inductor connected between two nodes of a circuit, then the inductor is connected in parallel combination with each other. In other words, when both ends (or terminals) of the inductor are connected respectively to each and of the other inductor.
The current flow through each inductor is not equal to the overall current but is the summation of each current passing through each inductor connected in parallel. The inductance of a parallel combination of the inductor is lesser than that of the combined inductance.
Fig. Parallel circuit of Inductor.
The total current flowing through the overall parallel combination is the sum total of individual currents flowing through each conductor so
lt = l1 + l2+ l3 …..+ ln
Where I is the overall current, and l1, l2, l3 … ln is the current through the L1, L2, L3 … Ln.
The relationship of current, voltage, and inductance of an inductor can be defined as V= L (di/dt)
As
Where Lt => overall inductance of the parallel combination of inductors.
L1, L2, L3 … Ln are the individual inductors in the parallel combination.
The above equation holds when there is no natural inductance or magnetic coupling between any inductors.
Resistor and Capacitor in Parallel
If there is at least one resistance and one capacitor connected between two circuit nodes, then the resistor and capacitor are connected in a parallel combination.
When resistor and capacitor are in parallel combination, the overall impedance will be at a phase angle between 0 degrees to – 90 degrees, and current will have a phase angle between 0 degrees to 90 degrees.
In a parallel combination of resistor and capacitor, the parallel circuit components share the same voltage. The phase angle depends on the value of the current that passes (or flow) through the capacitor and the resistor. If the current through the capacitor is higher, the phase angle will be close to 90 degrees. If the current through the resistor is greater than the phase angle, it will be close to 0 degrees.
Overall impedance
Where Xc -> impedance of capacitor.
R -> resistance of the resistor.
Phase angle
IC -> current through capacitor.
IR -> current through the resistor.
If the RC parallel circuit consists of only one capacitor and one resistor, then the circuit is of first-order type.
Resistor and Inductor in Parallel
If at least one inductor and resistor are connected between two circuit nodes, then the inductor and the resistor are in a parallel combination. The overall phase angle of this combination is always lying between 0 degrees to -90 degrees. The value of the phase angle depends upon the value of the current into and out of the inductor and the resistor. If the current through the inductor is more than that of the resistor, then the angle will be close to -90 degrees, and if the current through the resistor is more than the phase angle will be close to zero degrees.
The overall impedance (Z) is
Phase angle
Where R and L are the resistance and inductance of resistor and inductor, respectively.
IL and IR are the currents through the inductor and resistor, respectively.
If the LR circuit is composed of only one inductor and one resistor, then the circuit is the first-order LR circuit.
Parallel combination of Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor
If the resistor-capacitor and inductor are connected between two nodes of a circuit, then this is the parallel combination of resistor-capacitor and inductor
The voltage across each element is the same, but the total current flowing through this combination gets divided across each component depending upon the importance of each element
This RLC in parallel combination circuit is a resonating circuit.. When the overall current through the circuit is in phase with the applied voltage, it resonates at a particular frequency called resonating frequency.
If at least one inductor and a capacitor are connected between two circuit nodes, then the inductor and capacitor are in a parallel combination. The LC parallel circuit is in resonance when the capacitor’s impedance is equal to the inductor’s impedance. At that time, they cancel out each other to provide a minimum current in the circuit, whereas the overall impedance of the circuit is maximum.
Resonating frequency
Overall impedance
Where L and C are the inductance and capacitance of inductor and capacitor, respectively.
XL and XC are the impedance of the inductor and capacitor, respectively.
When XL > XC, then the overall circuit is inductive.
XC> XL, then the overall circuit is capacitive.
XC = XL then the circuit has maximum impedance and minimum current, and this circuit is called the rejector circuit.
Diodes in parallel
If more than one diode is connected between two nodes of a circuit, then the diodes are in parallel combination with each other.
The diode having a low forward voltage drop across it will carry a more significant amount of current than other my connected diode invalid the overall current capacity of the circuit will increase.
The forward voltage drop over (or across) the diode can vary with diode types. It is not necessary to connect all the diode in forward or reverse biased combination in parallel diode combination only. It can be a combination of both forward and reverse biased diode as for the requirement. The current sharing by each diode depends on its electrical capacity.
For example, in a parallel combination of the diode, if one diode is connected in forward biased and another is in reverse biased, then the current will flow through the forward biased diode as a reverse biased diode will block the current.
Transistor in parallel
When the identical pinout of two or more transistors is linked together in circuitry, this is the parallel combination of transistors.
The parallel combination of the transistor increases the current holding capacity overall. As several transistors increase, the current holding capacity of the overall circuit also increases. Generally, one transistor is sufficient for producing a moderate output current, but when a higher output current is required, adding more transistors in parallel becomes necessary.
Fig. Parallel circuit of Transistor.
Current source in parallel
The current source cannot be combined in a series but can be combined in parallel as the series combination of current sources violates Kirchhoff’s current law. If there is more than one current source connected between two circuit nodes, then the current source is in parallel combination.
For example, two current sources are connected in parallel combination, when the current source’s positive terminal is linked together and negative terminals of the current source is connected, then The current overall combination will get added. In contrast, when the positive terminal of the current source is connected to the negative terminal of another current source, then the overall current through the combination will get subtracted from each other. This is based on the sign convention of the current source or the direction of the flowing current in the circuitry.
FAQ:
What is a parallel circuit?
There can be different types of circuits, where the parallel circuit is one type of circuit.
In a circuit where the current has more than one path or branch (between two circuit nodes) to travel through, different circuit elements are connected in different branches of the circuit.
What is the main disadvantage of parallel circuits?
There are a variety of advantages and disadvantages of a parallel circuit combination depending upon the application and uses.
In a Parallel circuit, the need of wire in parallel combination is more than that of a series circuit; it is the most significant disadvantage of a parallel circuit.
Why do we connect household appliances in parallel?
The House wiring is in parallel combination, and all the appliances are linked in parallel.
When the appliance is connected in parallel, all the appliances get the same voltage for operation. In parallel combination, the resistance is low. If one appliance is at fault, then the other appliance’s operation will not get affected in parallel combination.
Can you have two voltage sources in parallel?
Any voltage source (with distinct or similar value) can be linked in series with each other.
Two Voltage sources having different potential differences cannot be connected directly in parallel as it can violate Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. Only voltage sources of the same potential difference can be connected in parallel with each other.
What is XL and XC in RLC circuit?
RLC circuit is a circuit in which resistance, capacitor, and inductor can be connected in parallel, series, or other combinations.
XL and XC are the impedance of the inductor and capacitor of the RLC circuit, respectively.
To the uninitiated, Liquid Refrigerant and Coolant sound like two names for the same automobile fluid.
However, both these fluids serve completely different purpose in your car. Refrigerants are the primary working fluid in a refrigeration or Air conditioning system. Coolant on the other hand is a blend of water and an antifreeze.
Is liquid coolant the same as antifreeze?
Liquid coolant and antifreeze are sometimes used interchangeably.
They are not the same. Antifreeze is the chemical ingredient that lowers the freezing point and increases a water-based liquid’s boiling point. Coolant is the mixture of antifreeze agents and water which regulates the engine’s temperature.
The coolant primarily maintains the temperature of a system and prevents it from overheating. It acts as a heat transfer fluid in manufacturing applications, automobile and as a cutting fluid in metalworking, machining processes and industrial rotary machinery.
Coolant is a 50-50 split of antifreeze and water, which means antifreeze is nothing but a coolant component.
So why do we add antifreeze?
Water-cooled engines must be protected from freezing, heating, and corrosion.
However, water absorbs a larger amount of heat in comparison to most other liquids. But it freezes at a relatively high temperature, and also it is corrosive.
A mixture of antifreeze and water gives an adequate coolant solution with :
Ethylene glycol is a chemical that performs very well as antifreeze. It mixes properly with water and due to having a low viscosity, allows it to circulate simply through the cooling system.
Which liquid is used as refrigerant?
For a fluid to be used as refrigerant it must have few properties that are difficult to find in a liquid at room temperature.
The only refrigerant that is found in liquid form under normal atmospheric conditions is water (R718). However, commercial use of water as a refrigerant is minimal.
In order to delve into further details we must understand…
What Refrigerants do?
Refrigerants are the primary heat transfer agents in an HVAC system.
They absorb heat during evaporation, causing the refrigeration effect at low temperature and pressure, and release heat to cooling media, which is normally water or ambient air during condensation at high temperature and pressure. A schematic diagram of a refrigeration system is shown below:
In a refrigeration system, it is desired that during the evaporation cycle (which sees the lowest pressure), the refrigeration system pressure is maintained above atmospheric so that no non-condensing gas (read air) ingresses into the system and render the system inefficient.
The evaporating pressures (40°F) and condensing pressures (100°F) of all the commonly used refrigerants are above atmospheric (Source: p410, Handbook of air conditioning and refrigeration, Auth Shan K. Wang, Mcgraw-Hill pub). It implies all the refrigerants that are usually being used in the industry are gases at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Types of Refrigerants
The earliest refrigerants used were air and ammonia. Then came the CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) and HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) and were extensively used till the 1980s. Due to the environmental concerns of CFCs and HCFC, they are gradually phased out and replaced with new formulations, which can be classified as follows:
Hydrofluorocarbons: HFCs are a combination of hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms. Due to the absence of chlorine atoms, they are environmentally safe, and there is no chance of ozone depletion. They are chosen by the prefix HFC.
Azeotropic: Azeotropes are mixtures or blends characterized by constant boiling points. The blends of refrigerants are called azeotropic if there is no change in composition at any point in the vapor-liquid mixture similar to that of a single component. They evaporate and condensate at a fixed temperature under constant pressure conditions.
Near Azeotropic and Zeotropic: These blends of refrigerants behave as a single component while phase change is taking place. The phase change, however, doesn’t take place at a single temperature, and it happens over a range. This range is lower for near azeotropic mixtures and higher for Zeotropic blends.
Selection of proper refrigerant is important for efficient and safe operation of a HVAC system.
Criteria for selection of Refrigerants
A good refrigerant must fulfill specific properties to be commercially and environmentally viable and safe for use in an inhibited place. Factors that are considered for the selection of a refrigerant are:
Safety requirements: Leakage of refrigerants may occur from pipe joints, seals, or different parts during the installation period, operations, or accident. Hence, refrigerants must be adequately safe for humans and manufacturing processes, without toxicity or flammability. Ammonia is an example of toxic refrigerant.
Refrigeration Capacity: Refrigeration capacity is defined as the volume (measured in cfm) of refrigerant required to produce 1 ton of refrigeration. Depending upon the properties of refrigerant, such as its latent heat and its specific volume, the volume of refrigerant would be different, effecting the size of the compressor required and thus affecting both fixed as well as operating cost.
Physical Properties: Physical properties of a refrigerant, such as its heat capacity, thermal conductivity, dielectric properties etc., also play an essential role.
Why is gas line larger in size than liquid size in AC
The design of any component can be done based on the phase of matter used in it.
Gasses occupy more volume for the same mass compared to liquid by virtue of their lower density. Liquid state needs to be pumped through a smaller pipe diameter to maintain the same velocities.
In other words, for the same mass flow rates, in order to maintain the same velocities, fluid in its liquid state needs to be circulated through an area lower than that compared to the same fluid in its vapor state.
That is exactly what is happening inside an AC or refrigeration system. Hence, to maintain system pressure drop and velocity across the refrigeration system, gas pipelines are sized larger than liquid.
How line sizing is decided?
The line sizing is decided based on pressure drop, velocity and phase changes of the refrigerants taking place.
As the fluid changes from liquid to vapor phase the velocity increases. As the velocity increases the pressure drop increases. Hence, in order to maintain pressure drop as well as velocity the line sizes are different for liquid and vapor phase.
Let us look at the refrigeration system and see how the refrigerant travels through the four sections of an Air conditioning system.
Evaporator to Compressor: Low-pressure Saturated Vapor
Compressor to Condenser: High-pressure Superheated Vapor
Condenser to Expansion device: High-Pressure Sub-cooled liquid.
Expansion valve to evaporator: a low-pressure liquid-vapor mixture
A figure of the refrigeration system is shown below:
Refrigeration System with liquid refrigerant coolant Credit tranebelgium
As shown in the figure above, the refrigerant enters the evaporator from the expansion device in the form of cold, low-pressure liquid with some amount of vapor as a result of expansion cooling or the Joules-Thompson effect. Due to heat transfer from the refrigerant to the warm air outside, the refrigerant turns into a vapor by boiling.
The cold low-pressure vapor is then compressed by the compressor, increasing its temperature and pressure. This hot, high-pressure vapor condenses in the condenser.
The outlet of the condenser is sub-cooled liquid. This sub-cooled liquid refrigerant then flows from the condenser to the expansion valve and the cycle continues.
What are theDesign Goals of Piping system?
The main design goals of refrigeration piping are to maximize system reliability and reduce installation costs.
To accomplish the same, the refrigerant must be transferred at proper velocity across the system to maintain the design aspects and also at minimum capital and operating cost.
The primary design goals are as follows:
Returning of the lubricating oil to the compressor at the proper rate.
There is no flashing of liquid taking place before the refrigerant enters the expansion device
System pressure drops are within acceptable limits, and no capacity loss is taking place.
Total refrigerant charge in the system is economical.
Lubricating oil is required to lubricate and seal the moving parts of a compressor. Since the refrigeration process is a closed system, the oil is present along with the refrigerant and is pumped along with the refrigerant throughout the system. Thus it is important that the refrigerant, whether in liquid or vapor form, should have sufficient velocity to carry the oil along with it.
Let’s start with the Suction line or the line connecting the Evaporator to Compressor. This gas line must have sufficient velocity to carry the entrained oil droplet to the compressor.
Next is the compressor discharge line, which operates at high pressure and high temperature and delivers vapor to the condenser. Thus maintaining the mass flow rates across the system to maintain similar velocities, the discharge line operating at higher vapor densities (because of higher pressure) is comparatively smaller than the suction line.
The most critical piping in the refrigeration system is the liquid line which connects the condenser to the expansion device. Out of the three pipes, the liquid line has the most significant impact on the quantity of refrigerant required to charge the system, and hence its proper sizing becomes critical.
A Larger pipe size would call for a higher refrigerant flow requirement to fill up the pipe. On the other hand, lowing the size of the pipe would cause pressure drop issues. The pressure drop in the line must be small enough so that no vaporization occurs in the pipe before the entry of refrigerant into the expansion device.
Thus to sump-up, the gas-liquid piping in a refrigeration system is designed to minimize the pressure drop and thus reduce compression power cost. Appropriate velocities are to be maintained mainly in the gas phase to carry the entrained oil droplets required for lubrication along with the refrigerant.
Gas being lighter and having low densities need a larger pipe size than liquid for the same mass flow of refrigerant. Finally, liquid line size is minimized to reduce the refrigeration requirement. However, its size is limited by the pressure drop allowed in the pipe to prevent it from flushing before reaching the expansion device.
Start capacitor and run capacitor, both are motor capacitor, both are used for different purpose in the motor operation. Construction of both the capacitor is same, let’s discuss Start Capacitor vs Run Capacitor.
Start Capacitor
Run Capacitor
They are used for starting the motor.
They are used for providing continuous power to the motor.
Small duty cycle.
Long duty cycle.
Higher Capacitance rating (70-120 micro Farad)
Lower Capacitance rating (7-70 micro Farad)
Remain connected to the circuit for short period of time.
Remain connected to the circuit for long period of time.
The start capacitor is used during the startup phase of the motor and gets disconnected from the circuit when the motor reaches its predetermined speed, which is 75% of the maximum speed of the motor.
Run Capacitor stays directly linked with the auxiliary coil even after the starting capacitor is disconnected (or deactivated) from the circuitry. The run capacitor remains constantly charged while providing a controlled contiguous (or continuous) power to the motor.
The purpose of starting capacitor is to lag the current in a gallery winding during the starting operation of the motor, and it gets disconnected from the circuit when the router reaches its predetermined speed.
The run capacitor can be operated as a start capacitor, whereas the start cannot be implement as a Run capacitor. To start the motor or develop high torque across the motor, a high capacitance value is required to show the run capacitor array (two or more capacitors are connected in cascade) can be connected.
The capacitor value of the run capacitor is very much smaller than that of the start capacitor; a single running capacitor will not be able to start the motor as it cannot provide enough torque to the motor. There won’t be any problem (or drawback) with the run capacitor to start the motor, but the starting (or beginning) character may not be up to mark, and the motor may take a higher(or intense) starting current with lower torque.
What happens when a Run Capacitor goes bad ?
Capacitor failure can be of two types. Catastrophic failure is generally caused by the motor starting circuit being engaged for too long. The top of the starting capacitor has been blown off, and the inside has been slightly or fully ejected. The capacitor may be just raptured pressure relief blister.
The motor can display various problems if a run capacitor fails, including not starting vibrating, overheating, slow start, or motor buzzing. The motor will not have an uniform electric field that will cause the router(or root) to hesitate at irregular spots. A bad Run capacitor will cause the motor to become noisy, have high energy consumption, drop performance, overheating, etc.
What is the purpose of a Starting Capacitor ?
The start capacitor is come up with in auxiliary (or start) windings of the motor. The capacitance of a start capacitor is much elevated than that of a run capacitor.
The objective of the start capacitor is to provide enough torque to start (or energize) the motor, and it gets disconnected (or deactivated) from the circuit after the motor reaches a predetermined (or predestined) speed. Without a start capacitor when the voltage has applied to motor, the motor will generate (or give rise to) a humming sound. The capacitance range of a start capacitor is between 70 to 120 micro Farad.
Start capacitor increases motor starting torque and allows the motor to be cycled off and on rapidly. The start capacitor is designed in such a way that it is used just for a small time period. They can’t stay energized for longer.
How to tell AC capacitor is bad ?
AC capacitor is an integral part(or component) of an outdoor condensing unit of an air conditioner(or AC) or heat pump. AC capacitor provides sufficient power to the motor, which steers the air conditioning system.
Sign of bad AC capacitor:
Smoke or burning smell from the exterior air conditioner component
Air conditioning is not bring about cold air even after a long time of operation
Humming noise from the air conditioner
Old HVAC system
AC terms off on its own or on random
AC doesn’t start working immediately after turning on
High energy consumption causes high energy bills without expectation
When it comes to understanding electrical circuits, one of the fundamental concepts to grasp is voltage. Voltage is the driving force that pushes electric charges through a circuit, and it plays a crucial role in determining how electrical components behave. In a parallel combination of components, such as resistors, capacitors, or inductors, the voltage remains the same across each component. This phenomenon is known as voltage consistency in parallel circuits.
Explanation using the analogy of water leaking from a bucket with pipes
To better understand why voltage remains the same in parallel circuits, let’s consider an analogy involving water. Imagine you have a bucket filled with water, and it has multiple pipes connected to it. Each pipe represents a component in the circuit. Now, if there is a leak in one of the pipes, the water will flow out of that pipe. However, the water level in the bucket remains the same, unaffected by the leak. Similarly, in a parallel circuit, the voltage remains constant across each component, just like the water level in the bucket.
Comparison with voltage in series circuits
To further emphasize the significance of voltage consistency in parallel circuits, let’s compare it with series circuits. In a series circuit, the components are connected one after another, forming a single path for the current to flow. In this configuration, the voltage is divided among the components based on their resistance. The voltage drop across each component adds up to the total voltage supplied by the source. However, in a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component remains the same, regardless of their individual resistances.
Explanation of voltage drop across resistors in parallel
In a parallel combination of resistors, each resistor provides a separate path for the current to flow. As a result, the voltage across each resistor remains constant. This can be explained using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, which states that the sum of the voltage drops across all components in a closed loop is equal to the applied voltage. In a parallel circuit, the voltage drop across each resistor is equal to the applied voltage, ensuring voltage consistency across the resistors.
Importance of parallel circuits in maintaining voltage consistency
Parallel circuits play a crucial role in maintaining voltage consistency in various electrical systems. By connecting components in parallel, engineers can ensure that each component receives the same voltage, regardless of their individual characteristics. This is particularly important in applications where voltage-sensitive devices are used, such as in electronic devices or power distribution systems. Parallel circuits allow for efficient voltage division, ensuring that each component operates at its optimal voltage level.
Why is voltage the same in parallel combination of capacitors?
In electronic circuits, capacitors are commonly used to store and release electrical energy. When multiple capacitors are connected in parallel, they share the same voltage. This phenomenon occurs due to the fundamental principles of electrical circuits and the behavior of capacitors. Let’s explore the reasons behind this phenomenon and understand its applications in electronic circuits.
Explanation of voltage distribution in parallel capacitors
When capacitors are connected in parallel, their positive terminals are connected together, and their negative terminals are connected together. This configuration allows the flow of current to divide among the capacitors based on their capacitance values. However, the voltage across each capacitor remains the same.
To understand this, let’s consider a simple analogy. Imagine a water pipe connected to multiple containers. Each container has a different capacity to hold water. When water flows through the pipe, it distributes itself among the containers based on their capacity. However, the water level in each container remains the same.
Similarly, in a parallel combination of capacitors, the voltage across each capacitor remains constant. This is because the voltage represents the potential difference between the positive and negative terminals of a component. Since the positive and negative terminals of capacitors in parallel are connected together, the potential difference across them is the same.
Capacitors in parallel share the same voltage
The reason why capacitors in parallel share the same voltage can be explained by Kirchhoff’s voltage law. According to this law, the sum of the voltages in a closed loop of an electrical circuit is equal to zero.
In the case of capacitors in parallel, the voltage across each capacitor can be considered as a loop. Since the voltage across each capacitor is the same, the sum of these voltages will be zero. This implies that the voltage across each capacitor in parallel is equal.
Application of parallel capacitors in electronic circuits
The fact that capacitors in parallel share the same voltage has practical implications in electronic circuits. One of the main applications is voltage division. By connecting capacitors in parallel, we can divide the voltage across a circuit into smaller voltages across individual capacitors.
This voltage division technique is often used in power supply circuits to provide different voltage levels to different components. By carefully selecting the capacitance values of the parallel capacitors, we can achieve the desired voltage division ratio.
Another application of parallel capacitors is in filtering circuits. Capacitors are commonly used to filter out unwanted noise or ripple in a circuit. By connecting capacitors in parallel, we can increase the overall capacitance and improve the filtering efficiency.
When it comes to understanding electrical circuits, one important concept to grasp is how voltage behaves in parallel circuits. In a parallel circuit, multiple components are connected side by side, allowing the current to split and flow through each component independently. But what about voltage? Is voltage the same in parallel circuits? Let’s explore this question in more detail.
Description of parallel circuits and their characteristics
Before delving into the specifics of voltage in parallel circuits, let’s first understand what a parallel circuit is and its characteristics. In a parallel circuit, the components are connected in such a way that there are multiple paths for the current to flow. Each component has its own branch, and the total current entering the circuit is divided among these branches.
One key characteristic of parallel circuits is that the voltage across each component remains the same. This means that regardless of the individual resistance, whether it’s a resistor, capacitor, or inductor, the voltage across each component connected in parallel will be equal.
Analysis of voltage distribution in parallel circuits
To understand why voltage remains the same in parallel circuits, we need to consider Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). KVL states that the sum of the voltage drops across all components in a closed loop is equal to the applied voltage. In a parallel circuit, each component has its own closed loop, and according to KVL, the sum of the voltage drops across each component should equal the applied voltage.
Since the voltage across each component in a parallel circuit is the same, it follows that the sum of the voltage drops across all components will also equal the applied voltage. This ensures that voltage remains consistent throughout the parallel circuit.
Calculation of equivalent resistance in parallel circuits
Another important aspect to consider in parallel circuits is the calculation of the equivalent resistance. The equivalent resistance is the single resistance value that would produce the same total current as the combination of all the parallel components.
To calculate the equivalent resistance in a parallel circuit, we use the formula:
1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ...
Where Req is the equivalent resistance and R1, R2, R3, etc., are the resistances of the individual components connected in parallel.
By calculating the equivalent resistance, we can determine the total current flowing through the parallel circuit. However, it’s important to note that even though the current may vary across each component, the voltage remains the same.
Demonstration of voltage consistency in parallel circuits
To further illustrate the concept of voltage consistency in parallel circuits, let’s consider a simple example. Imagine a parallel circuit consisting of three resistors: R1, R2, and R3. If we apply a voltage of 12 volts across the circuit, the voltage across each resistor will also be 12 volts.
Voltage across R1 = 12 volts
Voltage across R2 = 12 volts
Voltage across R3 = 12 volts
This example demonstrates that regardless of the individual resistance values, the voltage across each component in a parallel circuit remains the same.
Is voltage the same in parallel circuits according to Reddit?
When it comes to understanding electrical circuits, one question that often arises is whether the voltage remains the same in parallel circuits. To shed light on this topic, we turn to the discussions on Reddit, where users share their opinions and explanations. Let’s delve into the insights provided by the Reddit community regarding voltage in parallel circuits.
Overview of discussions on Reddit regarding voltage in parallel circuits
Reddit, being a platform for diverse perspectives, offers a wealth of discussions on various subjects, including electrical circuits. When it comes to voltage in parallel circuits, Redditors have engaged in lively conversations, sharing their knowledge and experiences.
Opinions and explanations from Reddit users
Many Reddit users have shared their opinions and explanations regarding voltage in parallel circuits. Some users emphasize that in an ideal scenario, where there are no resistances or losses, the voltage across parallel components remains the same. This concept aligns with Kirchhoff’s voltage law in parallel circuits, which states that the sum of the voltage drops across the parallel components equals the applied voltage.
Others have pointed out that in real-world scenarios, there may be slight variations in voltage due to factors such as resistance, impedance, or the presence of non-ideal components. These variations can lead to voltage drops in parallel circuits.
Consensus on voltage consistency in parallel circuits
While there may be slight variations in voltage due to real-world factors, the consensus among Reddit users is that the voltage across parallel components remains relatively consistent. This consensus is based on the understanding that, in an ideal scenario, the voltage across parallel components is the same.
To further illustrate this concept, let’s consider a simple example. Suppose we have two resistors connected in parallel to a power source. According to the consensus on Reddit, the voltage across both resistors would be the same, assuming no significant resistance or impedance.
When it comes to understanding electrical circuits, one fundamental concept is the distribution of voltage. In parallel resistor circuits, where multiple resistors are connected side by side, a common question arises: is the voltage the same across each resistor? In this section, we will explore the behavior of voltage in parallel resistor circuits and shed light on this intriguing question.
Explanation of voltage distribution in parallel resistors
To comprehend the distribution of voltage in parallel resistor circuits, we need to delve into the concept of Kirchhoff’s voltage law. According to this law, the sum of the voltages across all components in a closed loop is equal to zero. In the case of parallel resistors, each resistor forms a separate loop, allowing us to analyze the voltage distribution across them individually.
When resistors are connected in parallel, the voltage across each resistor is indeed the same. This is due to the fact that the voltage source connected to the circuit provides a constant potential difference, which is distributed equally across all the parallel branches. Therefore, regardless of the value of the resistors, the voltage across each one remains constant.
Analysis of voltage drop across parallel resistors
While the voltage across parallel resistors remains the same, the current flowing through each resistor may differ. This is a consequence of Ohm’s law, which states that the current flowing through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance. As a result, resistors with lower resistance will allow more current to pass through them compared to resistors with higher resistance.
To illustrate this, let’s consider a simple example. Suppose we have two resistors connected in parallel: R1 with a resistance of 2 ohms and R2 with a resistance of 4 ohms. If a voltage of 12 volts is applied across the circuit, the current flowing through R1 can be calculated using Ohm’s law: I = V/R. Thus, I1 = 12/2 = 6 amps. Similarly, the current flowing through R2 can be calculated as I2 = 12/4 = 3 amps.
Demonstration of voltage consistency in parallel resistor circuits
To further solidify our understanding, let’s conduct a practical demonstration using a simple circuit setup. We will connect three resistors in parallel and measure the voltage across each one.
Gather the necessary materials: three resistors of different values, a power supply, and a voltmeter.
Connect the resistors in parallel by connecting one terminal of each resistor to the positive terminal of the power supply and the other terminal to the negative terminal.
Measure the voltage across each resistor using the voltmeter.
Repeat the measurement multiple times and observe that the voltage across each resistor remains constant.
This experiment confirms that the voltage across parallel resistors is indeed the same, regardless of the individual resistor values. It showcases the consistent distribution of voltage in parallel resistor circuits.
Is voltage the same across resistors in parallel?
When it comes to understanding electrical circuits, one important concept to grasp is how voltage behaves in parallel resistor circuits. In this section, we will delve into the topic of voltage distribution in parallel resistor circuits and analyze the voltage drop across parallel resistors.
In a parallel circuit, multiple components are connected side by side, allowing the current to split and flow through each component independently. One common question that arises is whether the voltage across each resistor in a parallel circuit remains the same. Let’s explore this further.
Explanation of voltage distribution in parallel resistor circuits
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each resistor is indeed the same. This can be attributed to the fact that the voltage across any two points in a circuit is determined by the electric potential difference between those points. Since the points connected to each resistor in a parallel circuit are at the same potential, the voltage across each resistor is equal.
To better understand this concept, let’s consider a simple example. Imagine a parallel circuit with three resistors connected to a power source. The voltage supplied by the power source is distributed equally across each resistor. This means that if the power source provides 12 volts, each resistor will have a voltage drop of 12 volts across it.
Analysis of voltage drop across parallel resistors
To analyze the voltage drop across parallel resistors, we can use Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) in parallel circuits. According to KVL, the sum of the voltage drops across all components in a closed loop is equal to the applied voltage.
In a parallel circuit, each resistor forms a separate loop. Since the voltage across each resistor is the same, the sum of the voltage drops across all the resistors in a parallel circuit will be equal to the applied voltage.
Confirmation of voltage consistency across parallel resistors
To confirm the consistency of voltage across parallel resistors, we can also use the concept of equivalent voltage in parallel circuits. When resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of their resistances is added together to determine the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination.
By applying Ohm’s Law(V = IR) to the equivalent resistance, we can calculate the current flowing through the parallel circuit. Since the current is the same across all resistors in a parallel circuit, the voltage drop across each resistor will be the same as well.
By understanding the behavior of voltage in parallel circuits, we can effectively design and analyze electrical circuits, ensuring proper distribution of voltage across components.
Is voltage split in a parallel circuit?
When it comes to understanding electrical circuits, one common question that often arises is whether voltage is split in a parallel circuit. In this section, we will explore the concept of voltage distribution in parallel circuits and clarify any misconceptions surrounding this topic.
Before diving into the specifics of voltage distribution in parallel circuits, let’s first establish what a parallel circuit is. In a parallel circuit, multiple components are connected side by side, allowing the current to flow through each component independently. This is in contrast to a series circuit, where the components are connected end to end, and the current flows through each component sequentially.
Explanation of voltage distribution in parallel circuits
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component remains the same. This means that the voltage across a resistor in parallel, for example, will be equal to the voltage across a capacitor or an inductor in parallel. This is due to the fact that the voltage across each component is determined by the voltage source connected to the circuit.
To understand why the voltage remains the same in a parallel circuit, let’s consider Kirchhoff’s voltage law. According to this law, the sum of the voltage drops across all components in a closed loop is equal to the voltage supplied by the source. In a parallel circuit, each component forms a separate loop, and the voltage drop across each component must add up to the total voltage supplied by the source.
Clarification on voltage splitting in series circuits, not parallel circuits
It is important to note that voltage splitting occurs in series circuits, not parallel circuits. In a series circuit, the total voltage supplied by the source is divided among the components based on their individual resistance. This results in different voltage drops across each component, with the sum of these voltage drops equaling the total voltage supplied.
In contrast, in a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component is the same, regardless of their individual resistance. This is because the components in a parallel circuit provide separate paths for the current to flow, allowing each component to have the same voltage drop.
Comparison of voltage distribution in parallel and series circuits
To further illustrate the difference in voltage distribution between parallel and series circuits, let’s consider a simple example. Imagine a circuit with two resistors connected in parallel and another circuit with the same two resistors connected in series.
In the parallel circuit, the voltage across each resistor will be the same, while in the series circuit, the voltage drop across each resistor will be different. This is because in a parallel circuit, the current is divided among the components, resulting in the same voltage drop across each component. In a series circuit, however, the current remains the same throughout the circuit, resulting in different voltage drops across each component.
To summarize, voltage is not split in a parallel circuit. Instead, the voltage across each component remains the same. This is due to the separate paths for current flow that parallel circuits provide, allowing each component to have the same voltage drop. In contrast, series circuits divide the total voltage among the components based on their individual resistance, resulting in different voltage drops across each component. Understanding these distinctions is crucial for comprehending the behavior of electrical circuits and designing efficient systems.
Is voltage the same across parallel circuits?
When it comes to understanding electrical circuits, one fundamental concept to grasp is the distribution of voltage. In parallel circuits, where multiple components are connected side by side, it is natural to wonder if the voltage remains the same across all the components. In this section, we will explore the behavior of voltage in parallel circuits and shed light on whether it remains consistent or not.
Explanation of voltage distribution in parallel circuits
In a parallel circuit, the components are connected across the same two points, forming multiple pathways for the current to flow. Each component in the circuit has its own voltage drop, which is the amount of voltage consumed by that specific component. However, despite these individual voltage drops, the total voltage across all the components in a parallel circuit remains the same.
To understand this better, let’s consider an analogy. Imagine a water pipe splitting into two branches, with each branch having a different resistance. The water pressure, analogous to voltage, will be the same at the beginning of each branch. Similarly, in a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component is the same at the points where they are connected.
Confirmation of voltage consistency across parallel circuits
The principlethat voltage remains consistent across parallel circuits can be confirmed by applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). KVL states that the sum of the voltage drops across all the components in a closed loop is equal to the applied voltage. In the case of parallel circuits, the applied voltage is the same across all the components, and therefore, the sum of the voltage drops across each component will also be equal to the applied voltage.
To illustrate this, let’s consider a simple parallel circuit with two resistors. If we apply a voltage of 12 volts across the circuit, each resistor will have a voltage drop of 12 volts. This means that the voltage across the first resistor will be 12 volts, and the voltage across the second resistor will also be 12 volts. Thus, the voltage remains consistent across parallel components.
Importance of voltage consistency in parallel circuit applications
The consistency of voltage across parallel components is crucial in various applications. One significant advantage is the ability to independently control each component in the circuit. Since the voltage across each component remains the same, it allows for precise control and manipulation of individual components without affecting the others.
Additionally, voltage consistency simplifies the analysis and calculations involved in designing parallel circuits. By knowing that the voltage across each component is the same, engineers can easily determine the values of resistors, capacitors, or inductors required to achieve the desired functionality.
Is voltage the same in parallel and series circuits?
When it comes to understanding electrical circuits, one of the fundamental concepts to grasp is voltage. Voltage is the potential difference between two points in a circuit and is often referred to as the “electric pressure” that pushes electrons through a circuit. In this article, we will explore the question: Is voltage the same in parallel and series circuits?
Comparison of voltage distribution in parallel and series circuits
To answer this question, let’s first compare how voltage is distributed in parallel and series circuits.
In a parallel circuit, multiple components are connected side by side, creating multiple paths for the current to flow. Each component in a parallel circuit has the same voltage across it. This means that the voltage across parallel components remains constant, regardless of the number of components connected. For example, if you have two resistors connected in parallel, each resistor will have the same voltage across it.
On the other hand, in a series circuit, components are connected end to end, forming a single path for the current to flow. The total voltage in a series circuit is divided among the components based on their resistance. This means that the voltage across each component in a series circuit can vary depending on its resistance. For instance, if you have two resistors connected in series, the voltage across each resistor will be different.
Explanation of voltage consistency in parallel circuits
The reason why voltage remains consistent across parallel components lies in Kirchhoff’s voltage law. According to this law, the sum of the voltage drops across all components in a closed loop is equal to the applied voltage. In a parallel circuit, each component forms a separate loop, allowing the voltage across each component to be the same.
Imagine a scenario where you have two resistors connected in parallel to a battery. Since the voltage across each resistor is the same, the current flowing through each resistor can be different. This is because the resistance of each resistor determines how much current will flow through it. So, while the voltage remains constant, the current can vary across parallel components.
Contrast with voltage division in series circuits
In contrast to parallel circuits, series circuits exhibit voltage division. The total voltage in a series circuit is divided among the components based on their resistance. This division of voltage is a result of the relationship between current, resistance, and voltage in Ohm’s Law (V = I * R).
Let’s consider a series circuit with two resistors. The total voltage across the circuit is equal to the sum of the voltage drops across each resistor. The voltage drop across each resistor is proportional to its resistance. Therefore, the resistor with a higher resistance will have a larger voltage drop, while the resistor with a lower resistance will have a smaller voltage drop.
To summarize, in a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component remains the same, while in a series circuit, the voltage is divided among the components based on their resistance.
In the next section, we will delve deeper into the concept of voltage division in series circuits and explore the mathematical calculations involved.
References
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Why is voltage the same in parallel connection?
In electrical circuits, parallel connections play a crucial role in distributing voltage across various components. Understanding why voltage remains the same in parallel connections is essential for comprehending the behavior of these circuits. Let’s delve into the explanation, analysis, and importance of voltage consistency in parallel connections.
When components are connected in parallel, they share the same voltage across their terminals. This means that the potential difference across each component remains constant, regardless of the number of components connected. This fundamental principle is known as the voltage division rule.
Explanation of voltage distribution in parallel connections
To understand why voltage remains the same in parallel connections, we can turn to Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). KVL states that the sum of the voltage drops across all components in a closed loop is equal to zero. In a parallel circuit, each component forms a separate loop, allowing us to analyze the voltage distribution across them individually.
Consider a simple parallel circuit with two resistors. Since the resistors are connected in parallel, they share the same voltage source. According to KVL, the sum of the voltage drops across the resistors must equal the voltage supplied by the source. Therefore, the voltage across each resistor is the same as the source voltage.
Analysis of voltage consistency in parallel connections
The concept of voltage consistency in parallel connections can be further understood by examining the behavior of other components, such as capacitors and inductors, in parallel circuits.
In a parallel circuit with capacitors, each capacitor stores charge independently. The voltage across each capacitor is determined by the amount of charge it stores and its capacitance. Since the voltage across each capacitor is the same, the total voltage across the parallel capacitors remains constant.
Similarly, in a parallel circuit with inductors, the voltage across each inductor is the same. This is because the rate of change of current through an inductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it. Therefore, in a parallel configuration, the voltage across each inductor remains consistent.
Importance of voltage consistency in parallel connections
The consistency of voltage in parallel connections is crucial for the proper functioning of electrical circuits. Here are a few reasons why voltage consistency is important:
Uniform operation: When components in a parallel circuit share the same voltage, they operate uniformly. This ensures that each component receives the necessary voltage to function optimally.
Balanced load: In parallel circuits, components with different resistances can be connected. By maintaining the same voltage across each component, the load is balanced, preventing any component from being overloaded.
Efficient power distribution: Parallel connections allow for efficient distribution of power. Since the voltage remains consistent across components, power can be distributed evenly, ensuring effective utilization of electrical energy.
Why is voltage the same everywhere in a parallel circuit?
In a parallel circuit, voltage remains the same across all components connected in parallel. This characteristic is essential to understand when analyzing and designing electrical circuits. Let’s delve into the reasons why voltage remains consistent in a parallel circuit and explore its significance.
Description of voltage distribution in parallel circuits
In a parallel circuit, multiple components are connected side by side, creating separate paths for current flow. Each component in the parallel circuit has its own voltage drop, which is the difference in voltage across the component. However, despite these individual voltage drops, the total voltage across all components remains the same.
To illustrate this, let’s consider a simple parallel circuit with two resistors. Each resistor has a specific voltage drop across it, but the total voltage across both resistors is the same as the voltage supplied by the source. This is a fundamental principle known as Kirchhoff’s voltage law, which states that the sum of the voltage drops in a closed loop is equal to the applied voltage.
Explanation of voltage consistency throughout a parallel circuit
The reason why voltage remains the same in a parallel circuit lies in the behavior of current. In a parallel circuit, the current splits and flows through each component independently. This means that the current passing through one component does not affect the current passing through another component.
Since voltage is directly proportional to current (according to Ohm’s law), the voltage drop across each component is determined by the current flowing through it and its resistance. However, the total voltage supplied by the source is divided among the components in such a way that the sum of the voltage drops across all components equals the source voltage.
Significance of voltage uniformity in parallel circuits
The consistent voltage across components in a parallel circuit has several practical implications. Here are a few key points:
Voltage division: The voltage division rule allows us to calculate the voltage across each component in a parallel circuit. By knowing the resistance values of the components, we can determine the voltage drop across each one, aiding in circuit analysis and design.
Equivalent voltage: In a parallel circuit, components with the same voltage rating can be connected together without any issues. This allows for flexibility in circuit design, as components can be easily added or removed without affecting the overall voltage.
Independent operation: Each component in a parallel circuit operates independently, meaning that if one component fails or is removed, the others continue to function unaffected. This redundancy can be advantageous in systems where reliability is crucial.
Is voltage the same in parallel capacitors?
Parallel capacitors are a common component in electronic circuits, and understanding how voltage is distributed across them is crucial for proper circuit design. In this section, we will explore the concept of voltage distribution in parallel capacitors and discuss its implications in electronic devices.
When capacitors are connected in parallel, they share the same voltage across their terminals. This means that the voltage across each capacitor in a parallel configuration is identical. Understanding this principle is essential for designing circuits that rely on the consistent distribution of voltage.
Explanation of voltage distribution in parallel capacitors
To understand why the voltage is the same in parallel capacitors, let’s delve into the underlying electrical principles. In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component is determined by the voltage source connected to the circuit. Since capacitors store electrical energy, they resist changes in voltage. As a result, when capacitors are connected in parallel, they act as if they are a single capacitor with an increased capacitance.
When a voltage is applied to a parallel capacitor circuit, the charge distributes itself among the capacitors based on their capacitance values. The larger the capacitance of a capacitor, the more charge it can store. Consequently, the voltage across each capacitor remains the same because the charge distribution is proportional to the capacitance.
Confirmation of voltage consistency in parallel capacitor circuits
The principle of voltage consistency in parallel capacitors can be confirmed by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law. According to this law, the sum of the voltage drops across all components in a closed loop is equal to the voltage supplied by the source.
In a parallel capacitor circuit, the voltage drop across each capacitor is the same, as discussed earlier. Therefore, the sum of the voltage drops across all the capacitors will be equal to the voltage supplied by the source. This confirms that the voltage is indeed consistent across parallel capacitors.
Application of parallel capacitors in electronic devices
The consistent voltage distribution in parallel capacitors makes them useful in various electronic devices. One common application is in power supply circuits, where parallel capacitors are used to filter out noise and stabilize voltage levels. By connecting capacitors of different capacitance values in parallel, designers can achieve the desired filtering effect and ensure a steady voltage output.
Parallel capacitors are also employed in audio circuits to improve the quality of sound reproduction. By strategically placing capacitors in parallel, engineers can create frequency-dependent voltage division, allowing specific frequencies to pass through while attenuating others. This technique, known as crossover design, enables the creation of high-quality audio systems with accurate sound reproduction.
Frequently Asked Questions
Why is the voltage the same in parallel circuits?
In parallel circuits, the voltage across each component is the same. This is because the voltage across each branch is determined by the voltage source connected to the circuit, and the branches in parallel share the same voltage source.
How is voltage the same in parallel combination?
In a parallel combination of components, such as resistors, capacitors, or inductors, the voltage across each component is the same. This is because the components are connected in parallel, and the voltage across parallel components is equal.
Is the voltage the same in parallel resistors?
Yes, the voltage is the same across resistors connected in parallel. In a parallel resistor configuration, the voltage across each resistor is equal to the total voltage supplied to the circuit.
Is the voltage the same across resistors in parallel?
Yes, in a parallel resistor configuration, the voltage across each resistor is the same. This is because the voltage across parallel components is equal.
Is the voltage split in a parallel circuit?
No, the voltage is not split in a parallel circuit. In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each branch or component is the same as the voltage supplied by the source.
Is the voltage the same across parallel circuits?
Yes, the voltage is the same across parallel circuits. In parallel circuits, the voltage across each branch or circuit is equal to the voltage supplied by the source.
Is the voltage the same in parallel and series?
No, the voltage is not the same in parallel and series circuits. In a series circuit, the voltage is divided among the components, whereas in a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component is the same.
Why is the voltage same in parallel connection?
The voltage is the same in a parallel connection because the components in parallel share the same voltage source. The voltage across each component is determined by the voltage source connected to the circuit.
Why is the voltage the same everywhere in a parallel circuit?
The voltage is the same everywhere in a parallel circuit because the components in parallel share the same voltage source. The voltage across each component is equal to the voltage supplied by the source.
Is the voltage the same in parallel capacitors?
Yes, the voltage is the same across capacitors connected in parallel. In a parallel capacitor configuration, the voltage across each capacitor is equal to the total voltage supplied to the circuit.
Knowing the position of crankshaft drive in the engine is essential. Cam shaft position sensor is used to get the required information.
This information is necessary to calculate the ignition point and injection point. This article gives a deep insight on functions of cam shaft sensor code, cam shaft sensor and steps required to follow after replacement of camshaft sensor.
Cam shaft position sensor
Camshaft sensor and crankshaft sensor work in harmony to know the exact position of crankshaft drive. The combination of readings from both sensors helps the engine control unit in determining the exact time when the first cylinder is in the top dead point.
Cam shaft sensor works on the Hall principle. A ring gear is located on the camshaft whose rotation is scanned by the sensor. Rotation of this ring gear is responsible for change in the Hall voltage of Hall IC in the sensor head. This change in voltage is translated to the required data by the engine control unit.
Any alarm is dangerous which is why it is called “alarm”. The intensity of problem maybe low in the beginning but if the alarm is ignored for a longer period then it may lead to severe damages to the engine.
The engine will initially start running erratically. The engine will give low fuel efficiency or mileage. If left untreated, then engine parts can be damaged due to improper ignition timing.
Code P0016 is a generic OBD-II code which indicates the cam shaft position sensor whether bank 1 correlates to the signal from the crankshaft position sensor or not.
Symptoms of P0016 code
There are many ways through which this code can be identified/suspected.
Some symptoms of P0016 code are-
Check engine light turns on.
Engine runs abnormally/erratically.
Engine mileage decreases.
Reduction in power
Causes of P0016 code
There are many ways through which this code can appear.
Major causes of P0016 are-
Oil control valve has restriction in Oil control valve filter
Camshaft phaser is out of position because of fault with phaser.
How severe is P0016?
As discussed for problems pertaining to code P0034, P0016 code has similar problems.
The engine will start stalling or running erratically. Then fuel mileage will go down. At last leading to severe damages to the engine depending upon the failed part.
What to do after replacing camshaft sensor?
The camshaft sensor must be installed in correct orientation. After orienting in the correct direction, one must reset the sensor before using the vehicle.
The resetting procedure is simple. Firstly, one has to focus on switch ON and OFF function, these switches are connected to magnets that need to be adjusted first.
After doing this, engine light, crank sensor and engine block needs to be checked for damages. Then, trouble codes also need to be checked with the help of a code reader to see if the problem still persists or not.
After doing this, turn off all the parts that are connected to battery and start driving vehicle at 70 Kmph-80 Kmph for five minutes and then decelerate it to 50-60 kmph. This way the timing chain is changed or the sensor is reset.
If one faces problems while resetting then he/she can consult a mechanic to perform this procedure.
It is not necessary that replacing the camshaft sensor will solve the issue. The error light might still be ON in some cases This happens when there is a fault in sensor wiring harness.
If the error doesn’t show after replacing the sensor then it is safe to test drive the vehicle, if the error still shows then it is desired to seek professional help. A professional mechanic can have a check engine light inspection which will ensure him whether the issue is fixed and can reset the code. There is no need of calibrating the sensor as it has been installed in correct orientation.
After installation of sensor, OBD II reader must be used to reset the codes. Most likely the sensor is fine. The only problem lies in resetting of codes that turns off the light in the sensor.
The transformer is a device that contains magnetically coupled coils that are generally electrically isolated from each other—a transformer transfers electrical power from one circuit to another. How does a transformer work? this article s going to take you ride with transformer.
The fundamental principle a transformer work on is the electromagnetic induction (or mutual inductance), when two different electrically isolated coils are in close proximity such that one’s magnetic field can link to another when an alternating current is applied to the primary coil, a fluctuating magnetic field is generated which causes electromotive force in the secondary coil.
The transformer which generates a higher voltage across the secondary than the applied voltage to the primary is the Step Up Transformer.
The transformer uses mutual induction (fundamental principle) between two circuits coupled by a common (fluctuating) magnetic flux. When alternating current (AC) is applied to the primary coil, a fluctuating magnetic field is generated, which causes electromotive force in the secondary coil.
Fig. Step-up transformer circuit.
As the number of turns in the secondary coil (n2) of the (step up transformer) is greater than the primary coil (n1), the EMF(electromotive force) is corresponding to the number of turns. Hence, the secondary cal generates a higher voltage relative to the primary coil.
Where K means voltage transformation ration, N1 means number of turns in primary coil,N2 means number of turn in secondary coil.
How does a step down transformer work?
A step-down(one type of substation transformer) transformer generates a lower voltage on the secondary side of the transformer.
A step-down transformer works on mutual induction between two circuits that are electrically isolated from each other while coupled through the magnetic flux. When an alternating current (AC) passes through the primary coil, a fluctuating magnetic field is generated, which causes electromotive force (emf) in the secondary coil.
As the number of turns in the primary coil(n1) is greater than that of the secondary coil(n2) i.e. n1>n2, is induced electromotive force(emf) is proportional to the number of turns resulting in the voltage generated across the secondary coil(of transformer) is lower than that of the primary voltage.
Fig. Step-Down Transformer circuit.
The voltage transformation ratio (K) of a step down transformer is less than 1 (K<1).
How does Auto transformer works?
The transformer whose (primary and secondary coil windings) are interconnected electrically is the autotransformer which means it has a single continuous winding common to both primary and secondary sides of the transformer.
Autotransformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction (or mutual induction). When the primary coil is connected to an AC supply due to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction is an electromotive force (EMF) is generated in the primary coil. As in autotransformers, the primary and secondary coils are in the single continuous winding.
EMF will be developed as the voltage ratio per turn remains the same in both the winding. The secondary voltage generated will be proportional to the number of turns connected to the transformer’s secondary side.
Fig. Autotransformer circuit.
A direct electrical connection between windings (primary and secondary coils) ensures that a part of the energy is transferred through conduction between the primary and secondary winding of the transformer. The amount of winding that is shared by both the primary and secondary sides of the transformer(or of autotransformer) is referred to as the common sector. One end of the winding is linked between the supply and load, while the other end of supply (AC Supply) and load is linked to tabs along the winding.
An autotransformer can be a step down transformer when the AC supply is connected across the transformer winding. The load is connected by a tab across a relatively more minor portion of the winding.
How does a transformer work on the DC current?
The transformer is an electrical device that uses magnetic coupling (mutual induction) to pass an AC signal from one circuit to another.
DC current cannot pass through a transformer as for working of transformer AC supply is required, without AC supply there will be no fluctuating magnetic flux. Only a flyback transformer can be excited using a DC source.
How does a microwave transformer work?
Microwave transformers are robust, cheap, and generate high voltage arcs.
Microwave Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, like other Transformers.
The microwave (oven) Transformer has three (1 primary and 2 secondary) windings. When electricity passes through the magnetron, electrons are influcenced to create microwave radiation. When the magnetron of the microwave (oven) transformer works, AC flow through the secondary winding (or coil) of the (microwave) transformer resulting in the iron core generates magnetic saturation; as the anode voltage of the magnetron shoot up. Anode current also increases along with an increase in current through the secondary winding, strengthening the magnetic separation and increasing the leakage magnetic flux resulting in the transformer generating High Secondary voltage.
How does an output transformer work?
Output Transformer blocks DC and its let AC signal to pass-through.
The output transformer is an electromagnetic device that works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which isolates the input circuit from the output traffic while filtering AC signal to pass through magnetic coupling between input and output circuit.
The Output Transformer can be used to increase or decrease the applied voltage through the input circuit to the output circuit.
How does an optical current transformer work
An optical current transformer is a sensor that is used to measure electric current directly or indirectly.Optical current transformer working can be based on principles such as the Faraday effect, interferometric principle, the micromechanical sensor with optical readout, Bragg Grating.
The magnetic optical current transformer (MOCT) uses Faraday’s effect (fundamental principal) to measure electric current; it measures the rotational angle of the polarized light under the influence of a magnetic field and converts it into a signal of voltage proportional (or corresponding) to the electric current.
According to Faraday effect the orientation (or inclination) of linearly polarized light under the impact of a magnetic field. When the light propagates (or travel) through a piece of glasses, the rotation angle is corresponding (or proportional) to the strength of the magnetic field component. Polarizer material is used to convert light into a linearly polarized light.
Polarized light passes through an optical rotator because of Faraday’s effect on the orientation of linearly polarized light rotates as it passes through the rotator material. Different polarization material is used as an analyzer that converts the amount of rotation of the polarized light into the corresponding amount of light intensity. This intensity-modulated light travels to the photodiode, which bring about the corresponding electrical signal.
How does flyback transformer
The flyback transformer (generates saw-tooth signal) is also recognized as a line output transformer. This transformer can be excited by using DC volt. It can transfer as well as store energy.
The basic working principle of the flyback transformer is mutual induction. In this Transformer, one diode is linked in series with the secondary coil of the (fundamental) transformer and one capacitor in parallel with the load.
Fig. Flyback transformer circuit.
The primary coil is connected to a DC supply along with the switch. When the switch is on, the (DC) current flows through the primary circuit of the transformer and excites the primary coil. The primary coil ramp(a steadily rise in voltage) is generated through primary inductance, which got stored in the form of magnetic energy between the inductive gap (between coils) of the transformer. A diode is connected in series with a secondary coil of the transformer, which is in Reverse bias that restricts the formation of current in the secondary circuit.
When the switch is off, the primary current falls down to zero, and stored energy in the gap is released and transferred to the secondary coil, resulting in a rapid rise of output voltage as the voltage shifts to forward bias.
How does a buck-boost transformer work?
Buck Boost Transformers is used to adjust voltage levels, and it can be used to make small changes to the applied voltage, which can be up to 30%.
A buck-boost transformer has four windings which can be connected in different ways as requirements. It was on the principle of mutual induction between magnetically coupled coils. The resulting (output) voltage of the buck-boost transformer is the function of input voltage. If input voltage varies, then the output voltage will change in the same percentage. This transformer can be step up or step down depending upon its connection between the coils.
The terms hygroscopic and hydroscopic may sound similar but their meanings completely differ from one another.
Hygroscopic substance refers to the substance that can take and hold moisture from the surroundings. Hydroscope is an instrument used to see objects deep underwater. This article discusses about hygroscopic vs hydroscopic substances in detail.
Hygroscopic vs Hydroscopic:
Aspect
Hygroscopy
Hydroscopy
Definition
The ability of a substance to absorb moisture from the surrounding environment.
The practice of observing objects underwater.
Scientific Relevance
Significant in chemistry, physics, material science, meteorology, and various industries.
Relevant in marine biology, underwater archaeology, and maritime activities.
Key Examples
Substances like salt, sugar, honey, and certain chemicals.
Instruments like traditional and modern hydroscopes.
Applications
Used to control moisture in food and pharmaceuticals, in humidity sensors, and in maritime cargo management.
Used for studying marine life, archaeological underwater exploration, and inspecting underwater structures.
Instruments/Tools
Hygrometers and other moisture measuring devices.
Hydroscope and various underwater viewing devices.
Historical Background
Long-standing concept in the scientific study of moisture absorption.
Originates from the invention attributed to Hypatia of Alexandria for underwater observation.
Physical Process Involved
Involves absorption or adsorption of water molecules.
Involves visual observation through a medium (like water) using specialized equipment.
Industries Impacted
Food processing, pharmaceuticals, construction, and maritime industries.
Marine biology, maritime exploration, and underwater archaeology.
Hygroscopic substances
Hygroscope refers to the phenomenon of attracting water molecules via absorption or adsorption. Hygroscopic substances are capable of taking away moisture from the surroundings and holding it. This decreases the relative humidity of the surrounding. The relative humidity of substance is directly proportional to the amount of moisture the substance can hold.
Engineering materials like ABS, Cellulose , Nylon etc are hygroscopic in nature.In some composites, due to difference in hygroscopic properties of two materials, there can be detrimental effects such as stress concentration. The amount of moisture taken by a substance is a function of temperature and humidity of the surrounding.
The rate of transfer of moisture decreases as it approaches equilibrium. This happens because of two reasons- the driving force behind moisture transfer decreases and the diffusional resistance to mass transfer increases as the surface taking up moisture nears to equilibrium.
Image: Apparatus for measuring hygroscopicity of fertiliser
Hygroscopic materials are usually stored in sealed bags. These bags are simply kept in those places where the moisture content has to be regulated. A common example is silica gel which is used to take away moisture content from the products such as water bottles, lunchboxes, water filters etc.
If these materials are not properly stored, the desired moisture content will not be achieved. Moisture content is an essential factor for determining a machine’s life. If it is not regulated properly then simply because of improper moisture content, life of machines will be altered.
Hygroscopic materials in different pressure conditions
The partial pressure of hygroscopic materials and the ambient pressure can affect the moisture of the system directly.
When the material is subjected to high pressure (isothermally beyond saturation point), then the specific humidity will decrease and relative humidity will keep on increasing. The added moisture will affect material’s quality. An example of such pressure fed system is pneumatic system wherein the hygroscopic material is conveyed through air.
When the material is subjected to negative pressure, the specific humidity remains constant and relative humidity decreases as pressure of the air in conveyer decreases.
Applications of deliquescent materials
The phenomenon of absorbing moisture up to such an extent that the substance dissolves completely in the water to make a solution. Liquids like Sulfuric acid and and salts like Sodium Chloride are examples of deliquescent substances.
In chemical industries, deliquescent materials are used for absorbing water content from chemical reactions. These materials are also known as desiccants. Desiccants like silica gel are used for absorbing moisture from the surrounding environment.
Hydroscopy
Hydroscopy is completely different from hygroscopy. Hydroscopy is the practice of looking and observing things underwater. This can be done by using the instrument called hydroscope. The original hydroscope was invented by Greek scholar and scientist philosopher, Hypatia of Alexandria.
Hydroscope itself is not any instrument. Hydroscope refers to the type of any instrument that is used to measure properties related to water. The hydroscope is generally made out of tubes and a transparent cap at the end made of plastic or glass for viewing.
It is difficult for humans to see underwater without using hydroscope. When we try looking underwater with naked eye, water rushes on the surface of eyeball and distorts the light coming to the pupil. Hydroscope prevents this distortion by providing a transparent material which allows light to enter the eye and avoiding contact with water. If required, we can also achieve magnification underwater.
Examples of hydroscopy
Complexity of hydroscope varies from application to application. It can be as simple as a tube with two lens and as complex as a computer controlled lens with variable magnification.
Some examples of hydroscopy are as follows-
For viewing objects near the surface of oceans, a long tube is fitted with lenses so as to see the objects that can’t be seen otherwise.
In defence practices, subsurface water is detected by the use of surface nuclear magnetic resonance technique.
Applications of hydroscope
Hydroscopy is an important technique that allows us to study aquatic life and perform underwater tasks. Everything that requires deep water excursions is achieved by using hydroscope.
Following are the applications of hydroscope-
Scientists use hydroscopes for looking at marine life which dwells deep inside the ocean. Many marine animals and plants have been discovered with the use of hydroscopes.
Archaeologists use hydroscopes to search for ancient remains which might have submerged deep underwater.
Hydroscopy is used for inspection of ship hulls and underwater pipelines to check for corrosion.
Rescue missions in caves which are flooded by seawater.
