Narne Naga Srilakshmi

Catabolic enzymes facilitates the digestion of food materials by converting the large molecules into small molecules.The catabolic enzymes convert the complex molecules into the simple molecules by breaking down the bonds between them.

The catabolic enzymes play a crucial role in digestion process.

• Lactase
• Diastase
• Sucrase
• Maltase
• Glucoamylase
• Protease
• Lipase
• Cellulose

Lactase:

It is producedin a great number of organisms especially in mammals. It can also be termed as lactase- phlorizin hydrolase and it comes under β- galactosidase family. It can be found at the brush boarder of the small intestine in humans and mammals. Lactase breaks down the whole milk into simple sugar lactose which is the sweeting component of milk.

If the person lacks lactase enzyme he/ she is intolerant to lactose products like milk, cheese, butter, curd etc.

The person cannot digest them easily and may get gas, and diarrhoea.

Diastase:

It can break down the polysaccharide into monosaccharaides. It is group of amylase enzyme usually it converts starch into maltose during germination of seeds. It is found in germinating seeds, saliva, and digestive tract of humans and also in honey.

Sucrase:

This enzyme can also termed as invertase. It is generally found in yeast, brush boarder of the small intestine in humans and in the intestinal mucosa of animals. This enzyme digests the sucrose into simple sugars like glucose and fructose. In the absence of sucrase enzyme some sugars like sucrose are not digested.

Maltase:

It breaks down the maltose into glucose molecule. It is commonly found in plants, bacteria, humans, and in yeast.

Glucoamylase:

It hydrolyses the starch. It is generally used in food processing industry for fermentation of starch or dextrin and in beverage production. It acts as a bio catalyst by converting polysaccharide sugars into monosaccharide sugars. The dextrose and isomaltose are formed in reverse reaction of glucoamylase by combining the dextrin molecules.

The microorganisms like aspergillus neiger, aspergillus awamori and rhyzophus oryzae can produce glucoamylase.

It can be seen in humans especially in mouth and pancreas.

Protease:

The proteins are digested by protease by hydrolysis of protein bonds.

These are produced in plants, animals, humans, fungi, and bacteria, especially in human body they are produced in pancreas and stomach. These enzymes usually aid the digestion of dairy products like cheese, milk, butter and meat products.

They can also help in the cell division process, immune system maintenance, blood clotting, and protein recycling process.

Not only humans but also plants need proteolytic enzymes for the growth and development.

There are three types of proteases. They are trypsin, pepsin, and chymotrypsin. These enzymes break down the large protein chain into simple amino acids by digesting protein bonds.

These enzymes are produced in our body and some food items like papaya, pine apple, ginger, kiwifruit, and yogurt are the natural sources of peptidases.

Lipase:

Lipases breakdown the lipids and fats into small fatty acids. For example triglycerides are converted into glycerol and fatty acids by breaking down the corboxy ester bonds. The glycerol and fatty acids can be easily absorbed by the body.

In human body mouth, pancreas, and stomach produce this enzyme.

Lipase is used in vegetable oil production and baking as well as dairy industries to amplify the aroma.

Celluase:

It hydrolyses the plant polysaccharide product cellulose into monosaccharide glucose. Cellulose is plant fiber and cannot be digested easily. It hydrolyses cellulose by breaking down the β-1, 4 – glycosidic bonds. It can act against the harmful microbial biofilm and enhance the release of antioxidant components in fruits and vegetables.

Conclusion:

The catabolic enzymes play a crucial role in the catabolism of food items like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and fats by hydrolysing the bonds. they convert large molecules into simple compounds. Thus the catabolic enzymes are very important in biological system.

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Passive transport doesn’t consume cell energy during transportation of molecules.

Passive transport facilitates the transportation of molecules with put consuming cell energy.

The transportation of molecules or ions occurs from greater concentration to lesser concentration gradient in Passive transport.

• Simple diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion
• Filtration
• Osmosis

Simple diffusion:

In this process the molecules travel from high concentration gradient to low concentration gradient until the concentration of molecules becomes neutral.

The simple diffusion occurs in gases and liquids as in these cases the molecules move freely.

This process doesn’t require any energy.

It aids the transfer of molecules in to and out of the cell. This is very important cell activity for during life cycles.

Facilitated diffusion:

Facilitated transport supports the movement of molecules or ions without consuming cell energy with respect to their concentration gradient. Hence this can be the passive transport process.

In this process only a few molecules are allowed to travel through the membrane as it is a selective process. Basing on the electric charge and pH levels the molecules are diffused through the membrane.

The membrane doesn’t allow the passage of the hydrophilic, polar and charged ions. The facilitated diffusion enhances the passage of molecules like glucose, amino acids, nucleic acids, and ions like sodium, potassium, and calcium.

The facilitated diffusion works according to the Brownian movement.

The facilitated diffusion is affected by four factors.

• Temperature
• Concentration
• Diffusion distance
• Size of the molecules

Temperature:

If there is rise in the temperature there is a rise in the diffusion rate of molecules because of increase in energy. Thus the facilitated diffusion is directly proportional to the temperature.

Concentration:

The molecules of ions are transported from greater concentration to lesser concentration.

Diffusion distance:

If there a small distance the diffusion rate will be high. Thus the facilitated diffusion is inversely proportional to the diffusion distance.

Size of the molecules:

If the molecule is small in size there will be high diffusion rate and vice versa. Hence the facilitated diffusion is inversely proportional to the size of molecules.

The facilitated diffusion is performed by the protein channels which are bounded in membrane. Namely they are channel proteins and carrier proteins.

Channel proteins:

These proteins aid the in and out of the molecules. These are two types.

• Gated channel proteins
• Open channel proteins

Gated channel proteins:

They control the entry and exit of the molecules in a cell. They act as a gate.

Open channel proteins:

They make a pore in the cell membrane and enchances the flow of molecules.

Carrier proteins:

These are membrane bound and carry the substances into and out of the cell.

Glucose transporters:

These transporters play a pivotal role in the glucose transport in a cell. They are two types. Namely they are sodium glucose transporters and facilitative glucose transporters.

Aqua porins:

They facilitate the passage of water molecules through lipid bilayer.

Ion channels:

These channels enhance the passage of ions like sodium and potassium through the plasma membrane.

Filtration:

Filtration is the method of separation of solid matter which are suspended in liquids with the help of filters.

The filter does not allow the passage of solid matter but allows the liquids to travel. The solid substance is known as residue and the liquid matter is known as filtrate. Different types of materials can be used as a filter. For example paper, sand, cloth.

Types of filtration:

• Vacuum filtration
• Centrifugal filtration
• Gravity filtration
• Multilayer filtration

Vacuum filtration:

In this type of filtration the two funnels are used along with the filter paper which are different in size but same kind. The vacuum pump draws the fluid through the filter.

Centrifugal filtration:

In this filtration the substances are rotated at very high speed in horizontal manner. By this process the heavy substances are separated from light weight substances.

Gravity filtration:

In this filtration the filter paper is placed in the glass funnel. The insoluble particles remain on the paper and the liquid travels down.

This process works on gravity.

Multilayer filtration:

In this different layers of filters are used with different materials like sand, charcoal as they contain different size pores.

If the mixture is poured the particles are separated at different layers depending on the particle size.

For example sewage water is purified in this process, drinking water purification.

Uses of filtration:

Kidneys are best examples for biological filters as the blood gets filtered in glomerulus. In this process the important nutrients and molecules are reabsorbed.

This is most likely used in pharmaceutical industry to separate the impurities as well as sediments.

Sewage water is purified through filtration process.

Drinking water can also be purified by this process.

Osmosis:

Osmosis is nothing but the diffusion of molecules through a semipermeable membrane.

During osmosis the molecules are diffused from greater concentration solution to lesser concentration solution.

This is a passive transport as it does not consume energy.

Thus process lead the equalization of solutions by maintaining the solute concentration.

Osmosis is a pivotal process in our biological systems.

The ions, games, molecules, proteins, and polysaccharides are being transferred through osmosis process.

In osmosis process the water molecules are transported through aqua porins.

Types of Osmosis:

• Endosmosis
• Exosmosis

Endosmosis:

Whenever the cell is placed in hypotonic solution the more molecules enter the Cell and this leads to the turgidity of cell. This process can be called as endosmosis.

Exosmosis:

Whenever the cell is placed in hypertonic solution the solvent molecules come out of the cell. This leads flaccidity of the cell. Thus this process is known as exosmosis.

Examples of osmosis:

The absorption of water from soil done by osmosis process.

During absorption of water the water flows into roots as they have higher concentration of water.

The guard cells in plant leaves can also be affected through osmosis.

If the plants have plenty of water then the guard cells become swollen and opens the stomata.

This helps in gaseous exchange in plants.

Human body can also absorb water if it is placed in water for longer time.

Importance of osmosis:

It regulates the turbidity of the cells.

 It can also regulate the balance between water and internal fluids.

It enhances the absorption of nutrients and release of waste substances.

It controls the water flow in plants.

Conclusion:

Thus the passive transport of molecules , ions, and substances occurs with respect to their concentration instead of consuming cell energy.

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• Function of cytoplasm in bacteria
• Monoecious plants examples
• Do animal cells have a central vacuole
• Enzymes and respiratory
• Gravitropism plant example
• Bacterial cell type
• Sequence of nitrogenous bases in dna
• Green algae example

Phytoplankton is a small marine living algae which contain chlorophyll to produce food. It is a tiny marine living algae. They are autotrophic organisms they require sun light for production of food.

Phytoplankton lives on upper surface of water and usually float in water.

• Protist
• Cyanobacteria
• Silica-encased diatoms
• Dino flagellates
• Green algae
• Chalk- coated coccolithophores

Protist:

Protist are the unicellular eukaryotic organisms. They are closely related to animals or plants in morphological and physiological characters.

But it is neither animal nor plant and fungus. Protists contain nuclear membrane around their DNA and also contain membrane bound cell organelles like chloroplast. These are usually motile aquatic organisms.

They may reproduce both sexually or asexually. In these organisms basically cell wall is absent but sometimes can be found. They have many ecological benefits in food web like as primary producers, as direct food sources, and as decomposers.

Most of protists may cause diseases in humans as well as in plants.

The size of protists maybe minute (microscopic) to several meters.

Cyanobacteria:

Cyanobacteria can be also known as cyanophyta. They come under kingdom monera. These are gram negative, aerobic bacteria that can produce food through photosynthesis.

These the aquatic organisms mostly found in fresh water. These organisms are unicellular or multicellular. They contain filament and the colonies are formed on the surface of the water. The size may range from 0.5 to 60 micrometres.

They can infect humans by producing toxins. They can also affect the life cycle of other organisms as they consume more oxygen and nutrients which are used for others.

The toxins of cyanobacteria can cause gastro intestinal problems, hay fever, skin rashes and respiratory problems.

These can be referred as primary producers of the food chain as they produce their own food.

Silica-encased diatoms:

These are generally known as micro algae and can be found in the oceans, soil. They generally form earth biomass and can produce 20-50 percent of oxygen on the earth every year.

These are usually unicellular organisms. They occur in single cells or in colonies. In colonies they may take the shape of the ribbons, fans, zigzags, or stars.

In the suitable environment they can reproduce for 24 hours through asexual reproduction.

The cell wall is comprised of silica. This is transparent in nature. They are autotrophic in nature. They have the ability of converting light energy into chemical energy which is aided by pigments like chlorophyll and carotenoids.

Dino flagellates:

These are the unicellular protists. They possess two flagella. Some species are photosynthetic and form major class of eukaryotic algae. Some species can be heterotrophic in nature and get food through phagocytosis. They can share the features with both plants and animals. They can be parasitic and endosymbiont for red algae. They may be red, green, yellow, or brown depending on the pigments. They reproduce commonly through asexual reproduction. They contain urea cycle.

The cell is covered with the coat called amphiesma, it contains flattened vesicles. Flattened vesicles can be referred  as alveoli which can be seen inside the plasma membrane. The nucleus of dinoflagellate is known as dinokaryon.

If there is a sudden population increase, it may lead to red tide. Red tide means that the colour of water is changed to red colour due to toxins released by the dino flagellates. The toxins may cause the death of fish and can also affect the humans through fish.

Green algae:

Greenalgae includes the prasinodermophyta. They may be unicellular or colonial flagellates.

Theyare macroscopic and multicellular sea weeds. Some other organisms depend on green algae for photosynthesis process as they contain chloroplast.

The main pigments in green algae are chlorophyll a and b and the thylakoids contain beta carotene and xanthophylls in stackes.

The main component of cell wall is cellulose and they store carbohydrates in polysaccharide form like starch.

Flagella can be seen in male gametophytes.

Chalk- coated coccolithophores:

The main component of them is calcium corbonate. The size may range from 5-100 micrometers.They perform photosynthesis. The chloroplast is in brown colour.

These are produced during biomineralization process. The calcium is produced in the golgi complex. They play crucial role in the marine carbon cycle.

They form calcite skeletons in the surface layer and later sink into deep layer of water through this process they maintain the alkalinity of sea water.

These can be referred as golden algae.

Conclusion:

Thus the phytoplankton play a pivotal role in oxygen production through photosynthesis process and can also maintain the food chain.

Also Read:

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• Do animal cells have lysosomes
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• Does glycolysis occur in the cytoplasm
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An epigynous flower has a fused hypanthium with gynoecium and the sepals, petals, stamens are attached to the rim of hypanthium.

The epigynous flower is comprised of fused hypanthium and bounded sepals, petals and stamens with the rim of hypanthium.

• Rose
• Flowers of apple
• Daffodil
• Plum
• Sunflower
• Orchids
• Banana
• Cucumber
• Melon
• Asteraceae
• Fuchsia
• Squash
• Guord

Rose:

The rose plants are cone under rosaceae family and these grow in perennial shrubs.

Roses have the centred ovary which is present between petals and green sepals which are pointing downward. The ovary is covered by petals.In addition to sepals and petals they contain anthers and stamens.

Rose flowers are comprised of five petals but sometimes there maybe many petals. The petals may be differentiated in colours and size.

Flowers of apple:

Flowers of apple have petals which are usually pink in colour and many stamens.

These stamens produce pollens. Stamens are the male reproductive organs and these are present on the top of stigma. The ovary is seen at the bottom of the flower. If the ovary is fertilized it develops into fruit.

Daffodil:

It come under family of Amaryllidaceae.

Daffodil is also known as shell flower. The stem is comprised of a yellow blossom with corolla which is deeply cleft into six lobes.The trumpet shape carries the stamens.

Plum:

They come under family of rosaceae.

The Plum Flowers are white, pink, and red in colour. The petals may be in single row (five) or many in number. The flowers are sweet in fragrance and are edible.

Sunflower:

It comes under family of Asteraceae .

The flower has petals and attractive heads. The petals may be yellow in colour. The head like attractive structure is in brown or purple in colour. The sunflower seeds are edible. these are used as oil resource.

Orchids:

It comes under family of orchidaceae.

The orchids are differentiated from other plants in morphological characters as well as flower structures.

The flowers are comprised of masses of pollen which is known as pollinia.

The stamens and pistols are joined together to form a column.

Many small seeds are present without endosperm.

Banana:

It comes under the magnolia family. The scientific name of banana is Michelia figo.

The flower of banana is also known as blossom. The flower is edible part of the plant which arises from the end of the stem. The flower holds the clusters of the bananas.

The flower looks like a cone and the bracts are in purple colour and looks like a heart.

The middle of the flower is in white colour and it tastes bitter.

The flower is comprised of sepals, petals, stamens, and the ovary.

The sepals and petals are the outer parts of the flower. These parts are colourful and attractive. Stamen is the male part of the flower and ovary is the female part.

Cucumber:

It comes under the family of cucurbitaceae .

The flower are mostly bright yellow in colour. The cucumber flower are unisexual. They may be gynoecious or monoecious./

The female flowers are produced by gynoecious flowers and they bear immature bloom namely ovary and it helps in the development of fruit.

The male flowers grow on a thinner looking stem.

Melon:

It comes under cucurbitaceae family.

Melon produces unisexual flowers which are yellow in colour.

The both male and female flowers can be produced in melon plant.

The male flowers have short with pollen in the middle of the flower and thin stem.

The female flowers have roundish folded stigma in the centre of the flower and thicker immature shape which bears unpollinated fruit.

 Asteraceae:

The Asteraceae family produce epigynous flowers.

These flowers contain compact inflorescence which are attractive.   

The flowers may be tubular or ligulate, unisexual or bisexual and filaments are absent with united anthers.   

Androecium is not found and gynoecium is seen some species. The seeds are endospermic in nature.

 The fruit in asteraceae family is known as cypsela.

The flowers like daisy, sunflower are the best examples of asteraceae family. 

Fuchsia:

It comes under onagraceae family.

They have attractive pendulous flowers and the shape of the flowers may be tubular or bell.

The flowers are red and purple to white.

The flowers have four small petals and four large slender bright red and purple sepals.     

Squash:

These flowers are also known as zucchini flowers. These flowers are edible and come under cucurbita species.

The blossoms are soft, delicate, and taste mild. Usually the squash are orange or yellow in colour.

The flowers unisexual and these can be pollinated through the bees, humming birds, butterfly etc.

The female flowers can be identified by swollen embryonic fruit at their base while the male squash are identified by long skinny stalks. 

Guord:

It comes under cucurbitaceae family.

The guord flowers have white and attractive flowers with spreading petals. The male flowers contain long peduncles while the female flowers contain short peduncles.

The ovary is present inferior in the shape of the fruit.      

Conclusion

The epigynous flowers may be unisexual or bi sexual and some species can prodocue necter through epigynous disc at the base of the corolla tube. This may attract the insects.

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Complete flower is comprises of four parts like sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.

Complete flower has four important parts like sepals, petals, stamens and carpels. In complete flower there will be male and female reproducing parts.

• Hibiscus (China rose)
• Rose
• Passion flower
• Lilly
• Gulmohars
• Sweet Peas
• Tulip
• Tomato
• Lemon
• Guava
• Jimson weed (Datura – thron apple)
• Golden shower tree
• Mountain ebony
• Margosa tree
• Black nightshade
• Curry tree

Hibiscus(China Rose):

Hibscus comes under family of malvaceae with the genus hibiscus.

The hibscus flowers are large, visible, trumphet shaped having five or more petals. There  are different colours in flowers ranging from white to red, pink, orange, yellow and purple.

Hibscus flower has pistil which has female parts and it is a long tubular parts. Pistils include stigma, style, and ovary.

The portion of the pistil which is swollen is called ovary, the upward tube is called stigma.

Rose:

Rose is woody and everlasting plant. It comes under family of rosaceae and having genus rosa.

Nearly there are 300 different species in roses.

Roses are the group of plants with rigid shurbs, climbing and having stems  with sharp prickles. The rose flower has five petals and sharp oval leaflet. The floral cup is known as hip.

There are different types of flowers in basing on the size, shape, smell.

The colours range from white to red.

Most of the species are hybridized to form diferent roses.

Usually roses are used as a symbol of love and sympathy and rose petals are used in scent and cosmetic production.

Passion flower:

Passion flower has another name passion flora. They come under family of passifloraceae.

They may be climbers or having vines along with tendrils. Some of the plants can be woody or herbaceous.

The flower shape is vary from shallow saucer shape to long trumpet during blossom period.

The flower has five petals in upward position and five sepals. The flower also has many tiny out fibers from the tube called crown. This is referred as the most beautiful part of the flower.

At the bottom of the inner part of the tube the five stamens form ring shaped structure (male pollen) and the ovary is present at the above the stamens. Above the ovary there are widely spreading styles with button like stigma. The ovary contains many seeds in three compartments and it ripens into a capsular fruit.

Lily:

Lily is an herbaceous flowering plant, come under the genus lilium. The family of lily is liliaceae.

The true lilies are the scaly bulbs, leafy stems usually these are narrow leaves and clustered flowers.

The flower has six petals they form the shape of trumpet.

Lilies usually can be grown through bulbs as well as seeds.

There are many varieties in lilies depending the color and size.

Most of the species are aromatic and lily has a nick name the flower of light because of its beauty.

Gulmohars:

It comes under fabaceae family with the genus delonix. It has a fern like leaves in light and bright green color and red- orange flowers with four petals and fifth upper petal is known as standard. The flowers have large elongated pollen grains. The flowering time is summer.

It has some other names in English like royal Poinciana, flame of forest. It is commonly grown through seeds. It is used as an ornamental plant. These flowers have antibacterial, antidiarrheal property.

Sweet Peas:

The Latin name of sweet pea is Lathyrus odoratus. It comes under the family of fabaceae and having the genus lathyrus. These flowers look like fringed butterfly while the stems are winged. The sweet pea flowers have distinct aromatic fragrance and there are different colors in flowers. The suitable flowering time is between spring and early summer.

Tulip:

Tulip flowers are comprised of three petals and three sepals. These flowers look like bell. The flower also contains six stamens and three lobed- ovary and three sessile lobed-stigma. The ovary is terminated by stigma. There are many colors in flowers from red to yellow to white.

Tulip has two to three long, broad leaves. The leaves are bluish- green in color.

Tomato:

Tomato belongs to angiosperms and it reproduces sexually and forms seeds. It comes under solanaceae family.  These can germinate into new plant in favorable conditions.

Tomato flower has both male and female reproductive system. It contains mainly sepals, petals, stamens and pistil.

Sepals:

This is the green colored part of the flower which is visible first when the bud is formed. It protects the bud before opening.

Petals:

These are yellow in color and attracts the bumble bees.

Stamens:

Stamens have the filament and at the top of the filament there is an anther with pollen.

The pollen carries male genes. The stamens are fused to form tube shaped structure.

Pistils:

Pistils have stigma, style and ovary at the middle of the flower.

It comprises of stigma, style, and ovary at center of the flower. It carries female genes. The seeds are formed when pollens fertile with ovary.

In tomato plants the fruit development is taken place in two steps.

1. Pollination
2. Fertilization

Lemon:

Lemon comes under family of rutaceae. It usually ever green flowering plant.

The have petals in white to purple colour and the buds are reddish in colour.

The flowers are in sweet smell and solitary in small clusters and in the axils of the leaves.

Guava:

Guava comes under myrtaceae family.

The flowers contain four petals and white in colour.

The fruits are round to oval shape and they have many seeds and soft pulp.

Jimson weed: (thorn apple)

Datura comes under the family of solanaceae. These are commonly poisonous plants. These are also known as thorn apples. The flowers have long elongated trumpet and these are white,cremy or violet in colour.the flowers usually grow on short stems or at axil of the leaves.

The calayx is long tubular in structure and swollen at the bottom and submounted by five sharp teeth.

The corolla is white in colour folded or partially open and funnel shaped with prominent ribs.

The flowers open during night time with aromatic smell to attract nocturnal moths.

The flowers generally open at night and emmit fragnance to attract nocturnal moths. The flowers are developed into oviod, egg shaped seedcapsule with many seeds.

Golden shower tree:

It comes under family of fabaceae.

The scienific name is cassia fistula. It has other names like purging cassia and indian labrunum.

The flowering time is summer and the flower of golden shower tree is reffered as flower of kerala. The flowers are comprised of five petals and yellow in colour.

They develop in pendulous raceme pattern and the leaves are arranged in a spiral manner.

Mountain ebony:

The scientific name is Bauhunia variegata and it comes under family of fabaceae.

The flowers are vary in colours like light purple, magenta, pink or white with five petals.

The flowers also have enlongated pollens nearly 75 microns in length.

Margosa tree:

In India it is commonly known as neem. The scientific name is Azadiracha Indica. It comes under family of Meliaceae.

It has a tiny fragment white bi sexual flowers. It flowers can develop into seeds and the neem plants are propagaed through the seeds.

The neem has several benefits. It can be used as anifungal and anti- bacterial.

Neem is used in shampoos, soaps, tooth paste, mouth wash etc.

Royal poinciana:

They come under the family of fabaceae.

The flowers are orange in color. The flowers contain four red to orange petals and one uplift petal called standard.

The flowers also contain long anthers which produce pollens.

Black night shade:

This is also known as solanum americanum.

This comes under the family of solanace.

The flowers are greenish to white petals and bright yello anthers.

The flower is developed into berry like friut. This is poisinous in nature.

Curry tree:

The scientific name is helichrysum ialium.

It has common names like immortelle and ialian star flower.

It comes under Asteraceae family.

It develops a beautiful inflorescence with numerous tiny, sponge- like yellow flowers.

After blooming period the friuts are developed in flower palces with many seeds which are brown in colour.

The flowers are fragnance so these flowers are used in perfume production.

Conclusion:

Thus the complete flower is comprised of both reproductive and non reproductive parts. The stamens and pistols are the reproductive parts and the petals and sepals are the non reproductive parts.

Also Read:

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• Hypertonic vs hypotonic
• Gamete 2
• Barnacle characteristics
• Photosynthesis reaction
• Channel proteins
• Prism
• Osmosis example
• Vacuoles and lysosomes
• Are membrane proteins carrier proteins

Genetic diversity refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It is a crucial factor in the survival and adaptability of organisms, as it allows populations to respond to changes in their environment and resist diseases. Understanding the different types of genetic diversity is essential for conservation efforts, breeding programs, and evolutionary studies.

Types of Genetic Diversity

1. Allelic Diversity

Allelic diversity, also known as allelic richness, is the number of different alleles (variants of a gene) present in a population or species. It is a fundamental measure of genetic diversity and reflects the genetic variation within a population. Allelic diversity is often used to assess the genetic health of a population, as a higher number of alleles indicates greater genetic variation and adaptability.

• Allelic diversity can be measured by counting the number of different alleles at a specific locus (location on a chromosome) or across multiple loci.
• Factors that influence allelic diversity include mutation rates, population size, gene flow, and selection pressures.
• High allelic diversity is typically associated with larger, more stable populations, while low allelic diversity can indicate inbreeding or population bottlenecks.

2. Heterozygosity

Heterozygosity is the measure of the proportion of individuals in a population that are heterozygous, meaning they have two different alleles at a particular locus. It is a common measure of genetic diversity and reflects the level of genetic variation within a population.

• There are two types of heterozygosity: observed heterozygosity (Ho) and expected heterozygosity (He).
• Observed heterozygosity (Ho) is the proportion of individuals in a population that are heterozygous at a particular locus.
• Expected heterozygosity (He) is the probability that two randomly selected alleles from the population will be different.
• Populations with higher heterozygosity are generally considered to have greater genetic diversity and adaptability.

3. Nucleotide Diversity

Nucleotide diversity, also known as nucleotide polymorphism, is a measure of the average number of nucleotide differences per site between any two DNA sequences chosen randomly from the population. It is a measure of the genetic variation within a population at the DNA sequence level.

• Nucleotide diversity is typically calculated using the nucleotide diversity index (π), which is the average number of nucleotide differences per site between any two DNA sequences.
• Factors that influence nucleotide diversity include mutation rates, population size, and the strength of selection.
• Populations with higher nucleotide diversity are generally considered to have greater genetic variation and adaptability.

4. Genetic Distance

Genetic distance is a measure of the degree of genetic divergence between populations or species. It is based on the frequency of different alleles at multiple loci and takes into account the degree of similarity or difference between the populations.

• One commonly used measure of genetic distance is Nei’s genetic distance, which is based on the frequency of different alleles at multiple loci.
• Genetic distance can be used to infer the evolutionary relationships between populations or species, as well as to identify genetically distinct populations that may require separate conservation efforts.
• Populations or species with larger genetic distances are more genetically divergent and may have different evolutionary histories or adaptations.

5. Morphological Diversity

Morphological diversity refers to the variation in the physical characteristics or traits of organisms within a population or species. This type of diversity can be quantified using morphological data, such as measurements of size, shape, or color.

• Morphological diversity can be measured using methods such as the simple matching coefficient, which calculates the proportion of shared traits between individuals or populations.
• Morphological diversity can provide insights into the adaptive potential of a population, as different morphological traits may be advantageous in different environments.
• Morphological diversity can also be used to identify distinct populations or subspecies within a species, which can be important for conservation efforts.

6. Functional Diversity

Functional diversity refers to the variety of functional traits, or the characteristics of organisms that influence their performance or role in an ecosystem. This type of diversity is important for understanding the ecological functions and services provided by a community or ecosystem.

• Functional diversity can be measured by quantifying the range and distribution of functional traits within a community or ecosystem.
• Functional diversity can be influenced by factors such as environmental conditions, species interactions, and evolutionary processes.
• High functional diversity is often associated with greater ecosystem stability and resilience, as different species can perform complementary roles and respond differently to environmental changes.

7. Epigenetic Diversity

Epigenetic diversity refers to the variation in the epigenetic modifications, such as DNA methylation and histone modifications, that can influence gene expression without changing the underlying DNA sequence. Epigenetic diversity can play a crucial role in the adaptation and plasticity of organisms.

• Epigenetic diversity can be measured by analyzing the patterns of DNA methylation or histone modifications across the genome.
• Epigenetic diversity can be influenced by environmental factors, such as temperature, nutrient availability, and stress, as well as by developmental processes and aging.
• Epigenetic diversity can contribute to phenotypic plasticity, allowing organisms to respond to environmental changes without genetic changes.

These are the main types of genetic diversity that are commonly studied and quantified. Each type of diversity provides different insights into the genetic variation within and between populations, and can be used to inform conservation, breeding, and evolutionary studies.

References:
– Allendorf, F. W. (1986). Genetic drift and the loss of alleles versus heterozygosity. Zoo Biology, 5(2), 181-190.
– Nei, M. (1972). Genetic distance between populations. The American Naturalist, 106(949), 283-292.
– Frankham, R. (1996). Relationship of genetic variation to population size in wildlife. Conservation biology, 10(6), 1500-1508.
– Hoban, S., Arntzen, J. A., Bertorelle, G., Bryja, J., Fernandes, M., Frith, K., … & Bruford, M. W. (2013). Comparative evaluation of potential indicators and temporal sampling protocols for monitoring genetic erosion. Evolutionary Applications, 6(4), 593-612.
– Violle, C., Navas, M. L., Vile, D., Kazakou, E., Fortunel, C., Hummel, I., & Garnier, E. (2007). Let the concept of trait be functional!. Oikos, 116(5), 882-892.
– Bossdorf, O., Richards, C. L., & Pigliucci, M. (2008). Epigenetics for ecologists. Ecology letters, 11(2), 106-115.

Non flowering plants generally referred as cryptogams.

Non flowering plants are commonly known as cryptogams and some other are known as gymnosperms.

Cycads:

Cycads are the gymnosperms as they produce seeds. They contain a thick and woody trunk. They also contain a large, strong, evergreen, featherlike leaves.

Cycads produce unfertilised seeds and they are free in air and fertile through pollination process.

They can fix nitrogen with the help of nitrogen fixing bacteria like cyanobacteria at their roots. In this process neurotoxin is produced and if it consumed by humans may result in neurological disorders.

Ginkgo:

This is a native plant of china and oldest plant living on earth for about, more than 200 million years.

It has a large fan shaped leaves. These are consumed by humans in the curing of memory problems.

Gnetophytes:

Gnetophytes is a vascular, gymnosperm plant. There three types in gnetophyte trees.

Ephedra:

In ephedra species there are nearly 65 different species. Generally ephedra species have branches and form shrubs. These are distributed in cool and dry regions.

Gnetum:

There are nearly 30 species in this category. Gnetum species climb high or may be 9 meters tall.

The seeds can be cooked or roasted and young leaves can be eaten.

Welwitschia:

This is a gymnosperm species. This has unbranched stem and two persistent leaves that grow lifelong. These leaves are eaten by animals and survive in drought conditions.

Ferns:

It is a vascular plant, contains complex leaves called megaphylls. They reproduce via spores but not by seeds and flowers.

Mosses:

Mosses are tiny, non-flowering plans. These are non-vascular plants, come under bryophyte family. They generally form thick green clumps in shady places. They contain small leaves attached to a stem, they may be branched or unbranched. They generally reproduce through spores.

liver-worts:

These are non-vascular plants, they reproduce through two different cycles. Haploids and diploids.

The sporophyte forms haploid spores and these combine together and form gametophyte. This gametophyte may develop into a new cell or gametes combine together and form zygote. This zygote is diploid cell. Zygote can undergo cell division process even meiosis.

The liver worts leaves were used for curing liver disorders in olden days.

Psilotales:

These are the vascular plants. They come under ferns family. They reproduce through spores.

Club mosses:

Club mosses are the perpetual, ever green plants with a great many small leaves.

Horn worts:

These are the group of bryophyte family. They contain elongated horn like structure called sporophyte.

In haploid gametophyte stage the plant body develops. In this stage it develops like a thread like thallus or rosette. Only one chloroplast present in each cell of thallus. They reproduce through spores.

Horse tails:

They come under the family of  Equisetaceae, they are usually gro like herbs. Another name for this is bottle brush or horse herbs.

This plant has been used from greek period as a curative for curing of tuberculosis, osteoporesis( bone loss),  and kidney related problems, wound healing, controlling bleeding etc.

Sensational snake plant:

There are nearly 25 types of sensational snake plants. The scientific name is sansevieria. It contains large and lean leaves because of this feature this is also known as mother- in- laws tongue plant.

Glorious golden pothos:

These are commonly known as money plant. They have thick, heart shaped leaves.

These plants are generally grown in houses. This has nick name devil’s ivy plant.

Cool coleus:

It usually grown in houses in plant  pots, it is available in different colors like light green, maroon green, and deep marron.

Earnest entharium:

This has a beautiful red color leaves, and can be grown out door or in door.

Junipers:

Junipes come under family of cupressaceae. There are nearly 50-60 species are present in northern hemisphere.

These are evergreen shurbs or tiny trees with berry like cones. Some speceis may have aromatic cones.

Cedars:

Cedar comes under family of pinaceae with the genus coniferous. They are found vastly in western himalayan regions as well as mediterranean regions.

Cypresses:

It comes under family of cupraceae family with the genus cupressus. There many species in cypress because of their extensive cultivation. The species may differ in size, colour, and a variety of forms.

These are commonly used as ornamental plants in parks , temples, gardens and can be used in furniture because of their extensive durability of timber.

Firs:

These are the ever green species, come under the family of pinaceae.

There are nearly 48-56 species and found in north and central America, Asia, Europe and north Africa mostly in mountain regions.

They are closely related to the genus of cedrus. Some species are used as timber and some other as ornamental plants in parks, gardens etc.

Pines:

It grows like shrub or coniferous plant. It come under the family of pinaceae having a genus pinus.

The family of pine is the largest family among coniferous plants.

There are nearly 126 species among them most of the species are used as wood, and as a lumer.

Red woods:

Red wood plant is one of the tallest plants, may grow around 300 feet and can live for about 100 years.

Red woods belong to california and oregon. These are also known as sequonia becuase they look like sequoiadendron giganteum.

They require some special climatic conditions like sufficient rain fall, cool air in winter, and summer Fogg for thriving.

Yews:

They are the long living coniferous shurbs. They are slow growers. They come under family of taxaceae. These are commonly found in temperate and tropical mountanious forests of the northern hemisphere.

They grow under moist conditions, sunlight. It is generally grown as ornamental plant.

Larches:

These plants come under pinaceae family having the genus larix.

They grow well in cool temperate northern hemi sphere.

Larches turn yellow and lose needles in autumn season.

Kauris:

These are the coniferous, ever green plants. These plants come under the family of Araucariaceae family. They can grow under low light conditions.

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Genetic diversity is the variability of genes in offspring.

Genetic diversity is the process of inheritance by forming recombinant genes in offspring from parents. In this article let us discuss in detailed on genetic diversity examples.

Genetic diversity usually helps in the formation of unique offspring mainly through sexual reproduction. In nature gene mutation, gene flow and genetic drift may cause genetic diversity.

Genetic diversity helps in the formation variety of plants and it also helps in the formation of different physical attributes.

Genetic diversity in humans:

In humans we can observe different physical traits comes from parents. They include height, eye colour, skin colour and hair colour, facial features, finger prints etc.

This happens because of formation different alleles in genes in recombinant DNA.

Genetic diversity in plants:

In plants genetic diversity is very important to form different types and varieties of plant species.

Genetic diversity in maize plants:

In maize plants starch producing gene is modified to get more varieties of maize plants and to increase in the production of starch.

In maize plants starch is produced in two forms like amylopectin and amylose.

Genetic diversity in rose plants:

In Rose plants genetic diversity is characterised by allopolyploidization and hybridization techniques to produce different types of roses with colour difference, size, flower weight, number of petals in flower, oil content, number of stamens, flower diameter, peduncle length.

Genetic diversity in rice plants:

Rice plant species are being modified to produce more quantity, drought resistance species as these are more friendly to farmers and easy to grow.

Genetic diversity in wheat plants:

In wheat plants genetic diversity produced improved variety of wheat plant to give more yield, disease resistance and abiotic stress tolerance.

Genetic diversity in mango plant:

In mango plants genetic diversity has played a key role in the formation of different species to get more yield, taste and size in mangoes. In India 1000 varieties are genetically modified.

Genetic diversity in medicinal plants:

In medicinal plants genetic diversity helps to produce different chemical components which are important in medicinal use.

Genetic diversity in apple plant:

Apple plant are genetically modified to attain future disease tolerance and nutrition improvement, color, size, taste in apples.

Genetic diversity in animals:

Genetic diversity in animals aids in the production of different breeds.

Mainly genetic diversity is seen in dogs. Through this many types of dog breeds are produced.

In animals genetic diversity helps to increase the chance of survival and ability to adapt to climate changes, to produce different varieties of cattle, sheep etc.

Woody plant species:

Woody plant species show more genetic diversity as they have more geographical area, out crossing breeding system, animal digested seed dispersal and wind.

Generalist Vs specialist:

Generalist species eat a variety of food, so that they can survive easily in any environment. Racoon, rat, cockroach, mice, white tail deer are the best examples for generalist species.

But specialist species eat only habitant food. They are strictly bound to habitant food. Panda, owl, hummingbird, venus flytrap are examples of specialist species.

Is there genetic diversity in mitosis?

In mitosis genetic diversity generally does not take place as in the duplication of cells parental DNA gets transformed into new cell.

Genetic diversity does not take place in mitosis process. As in mitosis no recombination of DNA takes place.  But sometimes genetic diversity may happen due to mutations in genes.

Mitosis is the process of cell division where a single cell is divided into two similar cells. Mitosis occurs to repair the damaged cells and cell growth.

Mitosis can be seen in plants, animals and in fungi. It is somatic cell division. It usually occurs in cell nucleus.

Is there genetic diversity in meiosis?

In meiosis process genetic diversity takes place as the DNA from both the parents combine to form recombinant DNA molecule.

In meiosis the genetic diversity occurs during the formation of zygote. In zygote formation the DNA from both the parents from recombinant DNA molecule.

Meiosis is the process of cell division where the germ cells undergo cell division to form zygote. During meiosis the DNA strands from both the parents recombine and express inheritance in offspring.

It usually takes place two phases like meiosis-I meiosis-II.

Species diversity vs. genetic diversity:

Species diversity is nothing but having different species in a particular area. It refers to various present in particular geographical area.

Genetic diversity means having diversity among the same species. It refers to diversity in within the species in a geographical region. It is mainly maintained by genes.

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Frequently Asked Questions:

What is meant by mutation?

Mutation means the change in a gene sequence which may alter the genetic message from generation to another generation.

What is the importance of genetic diversity?

Genetic diversity aids the survival of organisms by changing their habits according to the environmental changes.

What are the types of mutations?

Mutations are generally two types. They are chromosomal mutations and gene mutations.

Chromosomal mutations:

The mutations may occur unexpectedly in chromosome during meiosis or by some mutagens. The chromosomal mutations are four types.

Gene mutations:

The mutations may occur in one or more genes. Gene mutations are 7 types.

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Coli form bacteria are the gram negative, rod shaped structures.

Coli form bacteria are gram negative, rod shaped organisms. They can be motile or non-motile forms. They can be known as indicator organisms.

Coliform Bacteria Examples:

Escherichia coli:

E.coli comes under fecal coli form bacteria. E.coli is generally present in warm blooded animals and reproduce rapidly in such conditions.

E.coli is gram negative, rod shaped, facultative anaerobic bacteria. The some species of E.coli are generally non- pathogenic and found in intestine of humans and animals. The non-pathogenic strains assist the host in the production of vitamins like K2.

E.coli can cause diseases in case of food poising and sometimes can cause urinary tract infections (UTI). E.coli commonly come out of the body through the faecal matter.

These species help in the detection of water purity. If water contain the Escherichia species we can say that the water is contaminated with the faecal matter or sewage water.

Citrobacter:

Citrobacter species are gram negative coli form bacteria. They come under Enterobacteriaceae family.

The citrobacter species like C.  amalonaticus, C. koseri and C. freundii are the most common types of coliform bacteria.

The species of citrobacter are divided basing on the ability of converting tryptophan into indole, fermentation of lactose and usage of malonate.

Thses are generally non-pathogenic bacteria but occassionally can cause infecions.

They may cause infections like neonatal sepsis, urinary tract infections and meningitis. Occasionally they may cause pneumonia.

Enterobacter:

Enterobacter is a gram negative, bacilli form and facultative anaerobic bacteria. These species come under the family of entero-bactericeae.The enterobacter species generally present on the skin, gastrointestinal tract, water, soil, some food products.

There are several species of enterobacter among them some species are pathogenic and cause generally infections like nosocomial infections but rarely cause infections like urinary tract infections, soft tissue infections, endocarditis, osteomyelitis and respiratory infections. The common species of enterobacter are enterobacter cloacae and enterobacter aero-genes.

Hafnia:

Hafnia is a gram negative, facultative anaerobic, bacilli. These speceis come under the family of hafniaceae.

There are some species of hafnia group among them H.alvei is the normal flora of humans. This is commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and can act as a probiotic. H.alvei is used in dairy products in fermentation process. This is commonly non-pathogenic but sometimes may cause diarrhea, meningitis, urinary tract infections, wound infections, intra-abdominal infections.

Klebsiella:

Klebsiella is a gram negative, aerobic and rod shaped bacterium. These organisms generally referred as normal flora of humans as they present in the intestine of humans and they are non- pathogenic in nature.

There are some Klebsiella species like Klebsiella pneumonia and Klebsiella oxytoca can cause infections in humans like pneumonia, meningitis. Usually these are transmitted through person to person in contact.

Serratia:

Serratia is a gram negative, facultative anaerobic, bacilli form bacteria. The moist environment, phosphorous and fatty rich environment is suitable for the growth of this bacteria. It can grow even on soaps and toilet area. It is generally non-pathogenic but occasionally may cause infections like urinary tract infections, endocarditis, respiratory tract infections and ocular lens infections.

Yersinia:

Yersinia is a gram negative, facultative anaerobic bacteria. These are pathogenic organisms. It can cause acute diarrhea, sepsis and pseudo appendicitis.

It may be transmitted not only through the raw food items, unprocessed food items like raw meat but also through the contaminated water and unpasteurized milk.

Types of Coliform Bacteria:

There are three types of coli form bacteria in nature.

Total coli form Bacteria:

This class of coli form bacteria includes all the species of coli form bacteria in the nature.

Fecal coli form Bacteria:

This is sub- class of total coli form bacteria. This class of species are abundantly found not only in the intestine and fecal matter of humans but also in pigs, cow, dogs. These organism are non pathogenic and pathogenic in nature.

The presence of fecal coli form bacteria indicates the contamination of water with fecal matter.

E.coli:

E.coli is the sub class of fecal coli form bacteria, this is the best indicator of coli form bacteria in water contamination. This is abundantly found in the intestine of warm blooded animals and comes out through the fecal matter.

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Frequently Asked Questions:

What is Osteomyelitis?

The osteomyelitis is a bone infection caused by the pathogenic bacteria like streptococcus bacteria and serratia. An osteomyelitis can cause pain, swelling and redness in the affected area.

What is an indicator test for coliform bacteria?

The presence of coliform bacteria is indicated by the membrane test and filtration technique.

In membrane bound test the cellulose ester membrane and agar are used. After incubation period the blue color can be observed this indicates the presence of Beta-Glucuronidase enzyme of E.coli. This enzyme breakdowns the Indoxyl-beta glucuronide which is present in MI- agar medium.

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The non-pathogenic bacteria usually don’t cause any harm to the body.

The non-pathogenic bacteria generally present on or inner parts of the body of humans or animals but they don’t cause any harm and beneficial to the health.

Non Pathogenic Bacteria Examples:

Staphylococcus epidermis:

Staphylococcus epidermis is an anaerobic gram positive rod shaped bacteria. This is also coagulase negative bacteria. This grows in grape like structures by pairing and also grows in single cells. It is commonly found on the surface of the skin so this is referred as common flora of humans.

This is also found rarely on the mucosal flora as well as marine sponge. By nature this is not harmful but if it enters the blood stream it can cause infections like intravascular epidermis in the humans.

Bifidobacteria:

Bifidobacteria is an anaerobic, gram positive, non-motile bacteria. This can grow in rods as well as in clusters. This is commonly found in both intestinal parts of humans and animals.

This bacterial species have the ability to digest monosaccharaides, disaccharides and plan polysaccharides like pectin, galacto-saccharide and frucoligosaccharides. This is most commonly used in food technology to produce fermented milk in large scale.

It can also be used in the production of probiotics. This bacterial species like B.infantis, B.breve and B.longum can synthesise the vitamins like riboflavin, biotin, folic acid, thiamine, pyridoxine, cobalamine as well as ascorbic acid. This class of bacteria have several health benefits in humans.

They can aid the digestion of lactose, colonizing of intestinal tract, prevention of acute diarrhea and antibiotic related diarrhea. It can also boost the intestinal immunity, reduce serum cholesterol levels and hypertension, suppression of cancer too.

Lactobacillus:

Lactobacillus is a microaerophilic, gram positive, non-spore forming, rod shaped bacteria. This is normally present in several body pars of humans mainly in intestinal parts and vaginal parts of women.

This most commonly used as fermenter in the production of food products like yoghurt, cheese, wine, beer, cocca and pickles. There are 7 types of lactobacilli species basing on the presence of 16S RNA. They are namely Lb.buchneri, Lb.planarum,  Lb.casei, Lb.salivarius, Lb.reueri, Lb.sakei, Lb.delbrukii.

The lactobacilli species paly a pivotal role in the digestion of the lactose, citrate and lactate. Some times these species may be infectious in humans, commonly cause urinary tract infections.

Escherichia Coli:

E.coli is an anaerobic, gram negative, rod shaped –coli from bacteria. It is commonly present in the intestine of humans and animals. Usually promotes the intestinal health and helps in the prevention of diarrhea. It usually non pathogenic and may cause infections like urinary tract infections sometimes.

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Bacteriods:

Bacteriods are an obligative anaerobic, gram negative bacteria. They can be motile and non- motile depending on their species. There are more than 3o species of bacteriods are present. These are considered to be normal flora in the large intestine of humans. They can aid the fermentation of indigestible polysaccharides.

Brevibacterium linens:

Brevibacterium linens is a gram positive, aerobic, non-motile, rod shaped bacterial species. It generally considered to be normal flora of humans.

These species are used in the food technology in the production of several types of cheese as they has the ability of producing different aromas. They can also produce the enzymes like peptidases, lipases and proteinases.

Frequently Asked Questions:

Name the food items which contain Bifidobacterium?

The food items like apple, yoghurt, whole grains, berries, onion and chicory have the good amount of bifido bacterium that can act as a probiotic. Probiotics usually help in the prevention of diarrhea.

What is Actinomycosis?

Actinomycosis means that heamotogenous anaerobic infection which is caused by Actinomycetes species. The symptoms include sinuse, tuberculosis.

What are the non pathogenic gut bacteria?

The single celled intestinal protozoa which present in intestinal parts without causing any infections are called nonpathogenic gut bacteria.

Do non pathogenic bacteria cause infections?

The non pathogenic bacteria like E. coli and staphylococcus epidermis cause infections if they enter into the blood stream.

What is the importance of non pathogenic bacteria?

The non pathogenic bacteria generally help in the digestion of food products like lactose, polysaccharides and can produce several vitamins and also enzymes. They can also guard our intestine by acting as probiotics.

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