Monika Saini

Hi....I am Monika. I have done Masters in Chemistry. I am a Subject Matter Expert in Chemistry. I would say that I am a very passionate writer. The main goal of my writing is to present new perspectives. I want to discover new things that I can apply to my surroundings. Let's connect through LinkedIn

Brf5 Lewis Structure, Characteristics:13 Must To Know Facts

by
859de632 59a4 4574 99d7 9a8b095f39cb

This article is regarding Brf5 lewis Structure, characteristics, and properties of Brf5.

Bromine pentafluoride, commonly known as Brf5, is a chemical used in the uranium processing industry and as a propellant for rockets. There is a liquid associated with this that is corrosive.

It becomes highly toxic and combustible when it reacts with organic matter. Brf5 lewis structure is an interhalogen compound with properties of Fluorinating.

How to draw Brf5 lewis structure?

In its outermost shell, bromine has seven valence electrons, which makes it a member of the halogen family. The halogen family also includes fluorine, which has 7 electrons in its outermost shell. So Bromine shares 5 electrons with fluorine and forms covalent bonds. 

brf5 lewis structure
Brf5 lewis Structure

Bromine valence electrons = 7

Fluorine valence electrons =7*5 =35

Total valence electrons = 42

Thus total electron pairs for bonding = 21, and participate in bond formation.

and remaining 1 pair as a lone pair. 

Bromine act as a central atom due to less electronegativity than fluorine. A Lewis dot structure consists of five Br-F bonds in Brf5.

Brf5 lewis structure resonance

In Lewis structure of Brf5 is composed of 42 valence electrons. We can distribute the valence shell around the nucleus to fill the outermost layers of each atom once we know how many there are in Brf5. There is no resonance observed in Brf5 and no isomers exist in Brf5.

The bromine (Br) atom makes up one of the five fluorine atoms in Brf5. While the bromine (Br) atom is in the center, the fluorine (F) atoms are scattered around it. 

Brf5 lewis structure shape

Brf5 has a pyramidal square shape. It indicates that the basic atom has a single pair of electrons.

The square pyramidal effect of BrF5 molecular structures is due to the individual electron pairs on the core bromine atom.

e6203c37 8637 46c6 968a fd4588f3e3a1
Brf5 lewis structure shape

Brf5 lewis structure formal charge

The formal charge is found as (valence electrons- nonbonding electrons-½ bonding electrons).

Formal charge on Br = 7-5-2 =0

Formal charge on F = 7-6-1 =0

The Brf5 Lewis structure has a zero formal charge.

Brf5 lewis structure angle

Brf5 has an octahedral shape with a 90-degree angle. 

There is repulsion between each atom which should be explained by VSEPR Theory.

873d8943 439d 464f a3bf c2e465e1de62
Brf5 lewis structure angle

Brf5 lewis structure octet rule

A molecule needs eight electrons to complete its octet, which means they need 8 electrons in the outermost shell. This is known as the octet rule and is used to work out how close an atom is to a specific other atom or molecule.

In the Brf5 lewis structure, bromine (Br) belongs to period four, which means it has a valence electron capacity greater than eight. Once knowing that, how many electrons are present in Brf5, the distribution of electrons around the central atom is done. Thus Center atom Bromine in Brf5 lewis structure has expanded its octet.

Brf5 lewis structure lone pairs

Valence electron of Br = 7 and there are five sigma bonds present between bromine and fluorine atoms.

Hence, there is only one lone pair present in Bromine(Br) hybrid orbitals. These lone pairs of electrons are also called non-bonding electrons

Brf5 valence electrons

There are seven valence electrons present on the bromine(Br) atoms and seven valence electrons on fluorine(F) atoms. They both belong to the halogen family.

In total Brf5 consist of 42 valence electrons and is calculated as,

Bromine valence electrons = 7

Fluorine valence electrons =7*5 =35

Total valence electrons = 42

Brf5 hybridization

Bromine atom Electronic configuration: 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d104s24p5.

Or

Br = [Ar]4s2 3d104p5

Some electrons are shifted to 4d-orbitals to obtain a pentavalency. There are two p-orbital that are unpaired. Bromine atoms at this point are excited and their will occurrence of hybridization takes place.

646ad928 0c15 4d12 baa1 01413840a986
Brf5 hybridization

Four of the orbitals are 4s, three 4p, and two 4d, while the six steric nodes are involved in hybridization. So the Hybridization of Brf5 molecules is sp3d2. There is a five sigma bond formation that occurs between five fluorine atoms and five valence electrons of bromine.

Brf5 solubility

Brf5 is soluble in water, it reacts with water violently and produces explosive and some toxic that is hazardous to human.

It is the fluorinating agent.

                                        BrF5 + H2O —-> HBrO3 + HF

                                   Bromine                 Boric 

                               Pentafluoride              acid

Is Brf5 ionic?

For a molecule should be ionic its electronegativity difference should be more and one atom consist of a partial positive and another atom should possess a partial negative charge. So in the case of Bef5 Bromine(Br) and Fluorine (F) have an electronegativity difference of less than 1.02, so they are not ionic.

Since all halogens are non-metals, this electronegativity difference can only exist between metals and non-metals, Brf5 is not ionic.

Is Brf5 acidic or basic?

Brf5 lewis structure is highly reacting with water and forms boric acids.

As a result of highly electronegative halogens in this molecular structure, the molecule reacts with a variety of organic substances, including water (H2O) also. Thus Brf5 lewis structure is having some basic properties because it acts as a metal fluoride and converts into [Brf4]+ and [Brf6]–.

Is Brf5 polar or nonpolar?

The molecules are polar when the electrons are not evenly shared between the atoms in their covalent bonds.

It is a polar molecule with a square pyramidal molecular geometry and an asymmetric charge density centered on the nucleus. 

The molecule is composed of five fluorides surrounded by a central bromine atom and a lone pair of electrons.

ddc13cbd 6154 44f4 a723 2512073bf01d
Brf5 polar or nonpolar

It is therefore polar. Thus Brf5 lewis structure gives information about the polarity of molecules and its reactivity is also explained through it.

In terms of structure, Brf5, or bromine pentafluoride, is similar to PCl5, which has a bipyramidal trigonal structure. As the Brf5 Lewis structure is completely symmetric around the central phosphorus atom, there is no net dipole moment.

Conclusion

It has been established above via various illustrations and facts that Brf5 is a polar molecule. However, it is mostly used in aeronautical rocket propulsion. It consists of 42 valence electrons in total, due to the asymmetrical distribution of electrons it shows square pyramidal geometry. BF5 is a powerful fluorinating agent.

Also Read:

Bebr2 Lewis Structure, Characteristics: 13 Must To Know Facts

by
799ac393 0709 4f39 af23 ef7e4af69ccb

This article illustrates bebr2 complete information like bebr2 Lewis structure, characteristics, and other vital properties.

Beryllium bromide has the chemical formula Bebr2 are hygroscopic compound. The chemical Bebr2 is soluble in water and is used in nuclear reactors, x-ray lithography, computer parts, and as a catalyst.

The earth’s crust naturally contains beryllium, a rare element. On the other hand, bromine does not form by itself but can sometimes be found as crystallized mineral halide salts.

How to draw Bebr2 lewis structure?

Lewis Structure is the dot representation of electrons and shows how the bond formation takes place. In this different atoms with their valence electrons participate in chemical reaction or bond formation to create new molecules.

The atomic number of Beryllium is 4.

Electronic configuration of Be = 1s2,2s2

Valence electron in Be = 2

The atomic number of Bromine is 35.

Electronic configuration of Br = [Ar] 4s2,3d10,4p5

Valence electron in Br =7

bebr2 lewis structure
Bebr2 Lewis Structure

Bebr2 lewis structure resonance

When metal and nonmetal combine to form an ionic compound, the result is beryllium, which is a metal, and Bromine, which is a nonmetal.

667c06df 6178 4e54 907b df4bee4db0fc
BeBr2 resonance

The BeBr2 molecule has a different electronegativity from beryllium and bromine, meaning it has no dipole moment. Because of the equal charge distribution of negative and positive charges, its structure is similar to that of a carbon monoxide molecule.

Bebr2 lewis structure shape

The Lewis structure of beryllium clearly shows that it is a triatomic molecule. The participating atom in that molecule has a linear geometry and a 180° angle.

777da1f0 3762 42f2 80ee 34158bf97403
Geometry and Shape

Beryllium is a less electronegative element than bromine. It is a tetrahedral polymer. Thus Be halides are not ionic they are covalent due to the high polarising power of Be+2, therefore its structure is shown above.

Bebr2 lewis structure formal charge

The formal charge is defined as the charge occupied by an atom that shares the electrons mutually and equally.

Formal Charge = Valence electron – Non bonding Valence electron – Bonding electron/2

Formal Charge = 2 – 0 – 4/2

                    Be = 0

Formal Charge = 7- 6 – 2/2

                     Br = 0

Thus the formal charge on the Bebr2 lewis structure is zero.

Bebr2 lewis structure angle 

Bebr2 has linear geometry and an angle of 180°. In the Bebr2 lewis, the structure beryllium is in the center and surrounded by two bromine atoms.

Bebr2 lewis structure octet rule

An atom’s outermost shell has eight electrons according to the octet rule. Beryllium only needs four electrons to complete its octet and become exceptional, whereas Bromine has seven valence electrons that can follow the octet rule but gain electrons from Be to form a stable electronic configuration.

e0e7ca6d c1d5 48a9 aa79 235d6036daed
Octet of Bebr2

Be Group 2 has two valence electrons. It is found in the periodic table of elements. Be is an exception because it does not adhere to the octet rule and instead expands its shell to accommodate more electrons.

Bebr2 lewis structure lone pairs

There are no lone pair electrons in the BeBr2 molecule’s center beryllium. Bebr2 lewis’s structure consists of two single bonds with beryllium atoms attached with two bromine atoms.

The center atom Be does have not lone pairs, it consists of two valence electrons.

Bebr2 valence electrons

An atom’s outermost electrons are known as valence electrons. Beryllium does not obey the octet rule, which states that all elements in the periodic table should have the same number of electrons.

This is because it only has two valence electrons, and this makes it less prone to breaking up as it undergoes chemical reactions.

Be= 2 valence electrons

2 Br = 7*2 valence electrons

Bebr2 hybridization

When one S orbital and one p orbital combine, a molecular orbital is formed which is called Sp Hybridization. During excitation, one valence electron shifts to the 2p shell from the 2s shell of beryllium. Sp hybridization produces equal parts s and p.

A sigma bond is formed when the fifth electrons of the second bromine atom bond to the left electron of the beryllium atom. The single covalent bond contains only a sigma bond and no pi bond.

a72c0fe3 00be 4206 bb54 2ed6aebba820
Hybridization in Bebr2

Bebr2 solubility

Bebr2 are highly water-soluble molecules. Bebr2 is a molecule with a low pH value that is hygroscopic.

A cation should have the smallest size and an anion should have the largest size according to Fajan’s rule.

Is Bebr2 ionic?

No, Bebr2 is not ionic it is covalent molecules.

Ionic compounds are those which are made by the attraction of positive and negative charges and by only the transfer of electrons from one atom to the other.

Reason:

Be has two valence electrons and Br has seven. If we look at the periodic table, we can see that Be belongs to group 2 (Metal) and Br belongs to group 17 (Non-metal). Because metal and non-metal have different electronegativity, they may form an ionic bond. However, the electronegativity difference between these two is 1.39, indicating a polar covalent bond rather than an ionic bond.

It adheres to Fajan’s rule, which states that a molecule should be covalent when there is a large difference in the size of its cations or anions.

Because Be+2 has a smaller cation size and Br-1 has a larger anion size, Bebr2 is covalent.

Is Bebr2 polar or nonpolar?

The behavior of an atom that attracts a shared pair of valence electrons is known as polarity.

This is a nonpolar molecule because there is no dipole cloud on the beryllium bromide molecule. Separation of charge occurs in polar molecules, resulting in two distinct positive and negative ends.

When unequal charge separation occurs among the participating atoms, the dipole moment is formed. The bond formation will occur at the end that is experiencing the greatest effect of the dipole cloud. According to this description, beryllium bromide is nonpolar because the involved atoms have symmetrical charge distribution.

Is Bebr2 acidic or basic?

Bebr2 is hygroscopic and slightly acidic.

Beryllium bromide exhibits an anomaly in that it does not follow the octet rule. It cannot accommodate eight valence electrons due to its small structure and a limited number of shells. The molecular geometry is linear because all of the molecules involved are arranged in a straight line.

Also Read:

Bacl2 Lewis Structure, Characteristics:13 Quick Facts To Know

by
b44fa91c e2a6 4c3c b725 ae8d33ea4d90 300x212 1

This topic is all about Bacl2 and how to draw bacl2 lewis structure, resonance, shape, formal charge, angle, the octet rule, lone pairs, valence electrons, hybridization, and their related properties.

The inorganic salt barium chloride is composed of cations and anions. Barium chloride is water soluble white solid salt. It is a yellow-green color when undergoes flames. The formula of barium chloride is BaCl2. Barium chloride is toxic.

How to draw bacl2 lewis structure?

The periodic table group 2 element contains Ba elements having 2 valence electrons such that Ba has two dot lewis structures.

A chlorine atom has 7 valence electrons in its outermost shell, to complete its octet it will gain one electron and acquire one negative charge, and when they combine formation of ionic compounds occurs.

bacl2 lewis structure
Bacl2 Lewis Structure

In ionic compounds, there is no sharing of electrons only the transfer of electrons takes place. 

Bacl2 lewis structure resonance

Barium which is metal and chlorine which is non-metal, when metal and nonmetals combine gives an ionic compound.

b147ceb4 d088 43c6 a5fc a21f858b9ff0
Bacl2 lewis structure

Ba+2 combines With Cl-1 to form BaCl2 which is an ionic compound that is white. 

Bacl2 lewis structure shape

Bacl2 in natural conditions exists in the form of white crystals. This crystalline solid exists in an orthogonal structure.

c597007c 3627 42f6 9482 7e1239af3668
Structure of Bacl2

Bacl2 lewis structure formal charge

Charges, or formal charges, are assigned to atoms in molecules. Barium with an electronic configuration= [Xe]6s2, contains two valence electrons in the last shell.

Thus barium is a metal that belongs to the 2nd group of elements that always shows a +2 oxidation state. Thus in Bacl2, Ba possessed a +2 charge that loses the electrons, and two Chlorine gain 1electron having a -1 charge. Thus formal Charge on Bacl2 = Ba =+2, and 2Cl= -1.

Read more about Strong Electrolyte Examples

Bacl2 lewis structure angle

Bacl2 molecules have a linear shape with a 180 ° Bond angle.

It is an ionic compound with Ba+2 Charge and Cl-1.

35554d30 082a 45cf a39a 3f370f4f6a83
Bacl2 lewis structure angle

Bacl2 lewis structure octet rule

Barium chloride is an ionic compound. This barium is the exception because it follows the octet rule and still does not have 8 electrons in its outer shell.

As Ba loses 2 electrons and becomes a stable noble gas electronic configuration as Ba= [Xe]6s2  it changes into Ba=[Kr] 5s2,4d10,5p6 . Thus no. of valence electron around the surrounding metal is less than 8.

Bacl2 lewis structure lone pairs

According to the lewis dot structure of bacl2, Ba has 2 valence electron and Cl have 7 valence electrons. Bacl2 is formed by the transfer of electrons from Ba to cl and after this, there are remaining lone pairs on the chlorine only.

Thus chlorine contains 6 lone pair and overall all compound is ionic.

7f2fd8cf b0a2 4a67 8ea9 8a53fc230685
Bacl2 lewis structure lone pairs

Bacl2 valence electrons

Valence electrons are those which are present in the outermost shell of an atom.

How many Valence electrons are in Bacl2?

Barium belongs to group 2 in the periodic table that’s why consists of 2 valence electrons in its outermost shell of it.

Thus barium has +2 valency and in the case of chlorine, it has 7 valence electrons in its outermost shell.

Ba= 2 valence electrons

Cl= 7 valence electrons

Bacl2 hybridization

A pictorial and mathematical method to determine the bonding in a molecule is called hybridization.

What is the Hybridization of Bacl2?

Hybridization is the mixing of atomic orbitals that is of the same energy and form a new hybrid orbital.

In Bacl2 Molecules, there are Sp Hybrid orbitals are formed with linear structure and 180° Angle. So, the Hybridization of Bacl2 is Sp.

78ddbda9 ec89 41ec a75e c4dccae1e79b
Bacl2 hybridization

Bacl2 solubility

  1. In water, barium behaves differently and it forms electrolytes in the water in the ratio of 1:2.
  2. It dissolved in water and separated into cation(Ba+2) and anion (Cl-1).
  3. Solubility of Barium chloride in water = 358gm/lt at 20℃. 
  4. Barium chloride is thus soluble in water at different temperatures, as Bacl2 gives cation and anion in water and water has H+ and OH– ions so, it dissolves in water easily. Chloride of barium dissolves in methanol as well, but not in ethanol.

Is Bacl2 ionic?

Yes, Bacl2 ionic inorganic salt.

Barium chloride is formed by the combination of metals and non-metals, in general when metals combine with non-metals there is the formation of an ionic bond takes place.

Here transfer of electrons from Ba+2 to Cl-1 and due to this transfer formation of an ionic bond occurs. The oxidation state of Ba is +2 and the Oxidation state of Chlorine is -2.

How is Bacl2 ionic?

In general, when metals combine with nonmetals, an ionic bond is formed. There is another reason Bacl2 is ionic is the differences in their electronegativity.

As we can see in the periodic table Ba+2 have electronegativity is 0.89 which is less than Cl-1 that have 3.16. So this difference in electronegativity is greater than 2.0 which means the compound is ionic.

Is Bacl2 polar or nonpolar?

Bacl2 is polar due to solubility in water and the polarity of barium chloride is due to the difference in electronegativity between Barium and chlorine atoms.

The geometry of molecules is different like its Hybridization is sp and possess crystalline structure therefore their dipole moment do not cancel each other generate dipole and this become polar.

Is Bacl2 an acid?

The compound barium chloride is not acidic.

Reason:

By losing two electrons, barium becomes cation and chlorine becomes anion, creating an ionic compound. So when we made an aqueous solution it dissolved in water in the form of water-soluble salts. So Bacl2 is not acidic.

Why is Bacl2 neutral?

Barium chloride is neutral due to its aqueous solution and in aqueous solution formation of cations and anions which make the solution electrically neutral and the pH of the solution become neutral.

So we can say that when bacl2 is dissolved in water it forms an aqueous solution. It is formed of Ba(OH)2 in water, Thus Ba(OH)2 is a strong base, and HCl which are strong acids, this will leads to the form of a neutral salt called Bacl2.

Is Bacl2 a precipitate and why?

Yes, Bacl2 forms precipitate due to displacement reaction with K2SO4, this will leads to an insoluble sulfate product in water such as Barium sulfates.

Barium sulfate is in form of a precipitate. An insoluble precipitate is formed when two solutions are combined this is called a precipitate reaction and on the other hand displacement reaction is the displacement of one atom with another.

  BaCl2 +K2SO4 —-> BaSO4 + 2KCl

                              (Insoluble white ppt.)

Conclusion:

Solution of barium chloride(BaCl2) is an inorganic salt and a water-soluble salt. The pH of the solution is neutral. Barium and chlorine ions are formed in water when it reacts with H+ and OH– ions. Hence, it can be dissolved easily in water. Bacl2 is highly toxic.

Also Read:

N2 Bond Order: 7 Facts Beginners Should Know!

by
ebe5ccb1 38e5 4495 956f 33a8ed0770ac 300x254 1

This topic will illustrate the N2 bond order and explain the bond order diagram, How to find bond order in molecular orbital, Mot, Bond order of N2–, and Covalent bond in N2 molecule.

Bond order tells us how many electrons are involved in bond formation between two atoms of a molecule. The order of electrons can also tell us how stable a chemical bond is. The difference between a Bonding orbital electron and an Antibonding orbital electron is called the Bond order. This concept was given by Linus Pauling. Example: n2 bond order = 3.

N2 bond order diagram

In General, the bonding in diatomic molecules can be found through the Molecular orbital diagram. This can also help to find the magnetic behavior of the molecule and also the Bond order of the molecule.

Electronic configuration of N: 1s2, 2s2, 2p3

Therefore total electrons in the Diatomic Molecule of N2 =14. N2 Bond order diagram can be drawn through the calculation of total electrons that undergo bonding.

ebe5ccb1 38e5 4495 956f 33a8ed0770ac

N2 Bond order diagram

How to find N2 bond order?

The following step finds the N2 bond order:

  1. Calculate total electrons that are present in bonding as well as anti-bonding orbitals.
  2. Fill this electron in Molecular orbital.
  3. Then apply the formula to calculate bond order as follow:

Bond order=½ (electrons in Bonding orbital- electrons in Anti-bonding orbital)

Bond Order of N2 Molecule:

Total electron in N2 Molecule =14

No. of an electron in bonding orbital( Nb ) = 10

No. of an electron in Anti-bonding orbital( Na) = 4

Bond order = ½ (10 – 4)

                   = 6/2 = 3

Molecular orbital diagram N2 bond order

Molecular orbital diagrams help us describe molecules’ electronic structures. 

Example of  N2 : 

Electronic configuration of N2 : (σ1s)2(σ*1s)2(σ2s)2(σ*2s)2(π2px)2(π2px)2(σ2pz)2

As we get filled orbitals of (σ2pz)2  there are no unpaired electrons present, so the N2 Molecule is diamagnetic.

n2 bond order
Molecular orbital diagrams N2

Mot of N2 bond order

Main features of MOT :

  1. Atomic orbitals combine to form molecular orbitals.
  2. The molecular orbital is represented as σ /π / δ.
  3. The number of atomic orbitals combined = Number of Molecular orbitals formed.
  4. These Molecular orbitals are of two types: Bonding Molecular orbitals and Anti-bonding molecular orbitals.
  5. Molecular orbital must have the same or same energy and shape combining the same atomic orbitals.

So, in the case of N2, There is a formation of molecular orbitals of sigma and pi with electronic configuration (σ1s)2(σ*1s)2(σ2s)2(σ*2s)2(π2px)2(π2px)2(σ2pz)2, That is formed by combining the atomic orbital of N: 1s2, 2s2, 2p3.

As we get filled orbitals of (σ2pz)2  there are no unpaired electrons present, so the N2 Molecule is diamagnetic.

Bond order of N2 2-

Total electron in N2 2- =7+7+2=16

Molecular orbital E.C of N22-= (σ1s)2(σ*1s)2(σ2s)2(σ*2s)2(π2px)2(π2px)2(σ2pz)2(π*2px)1(π*2px)1

Bond order= ½ (Nb-Na)

Nb=No. of bonding electrons

Na= no.of antibonding electrons

Bond Order= ½ (10-6)

                   =2

Therefore, bond order of  N2 2- = 2.

8a8b2e11 794b 4273 a0ba 8264d9ec5cf7
Bond order of  N2 2-

Covalent bond in N2 molecule

The atomic number of Nitrogen is 7 so the electronic configuration of nitrogen is 1s2, 2s2, 2p3. Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons in its outermost shell so it will require 3 more electrons to fill its octet configuration. So to complete its octet it will share the electrons with another atom of nitrogen or other elements.

0aa84c98 b2a2 4586 a15b 59f06f444b02
Covalent Bond in N2

A covalent bond is formed by the mutual sharing of electrons, so nitrogen forms a triple bond in its diatomic molecule by sharing electrons and completing its octet.

How many orbitals are singly occupied in N2?

In general, Nitrogen in the form of elements consists of 3-single (2p3 ).

The electronic configuration of N: 1s2, 2s2, and 2p3 occupied orbitals, But if we talk about the molecule of nitrogen it is a diatomic molecule formed by the combination of two nitrogen atoms.

According to the molecular orbital configuration of N2 : 

(σ1s)2(σ*1s)2(σ2s)2(σ*2s)2(π2px)2(π2px)2(σ2pz)2

d7069ab7 a5b3 4ad7 a1ca 88bd9a126e7b 2
Mot Shows orbitals are occupied in N2

From the configuration, we can say that there is no orbital present that occupied single electrons, like (σ2pz)2 full-filled orbitals.

Does N2 have a bond order of 3?

Yes, According to the molecular orbital configuration of N2 : 

(σ1s)2(σ*1s)2(σ2s)2(σ*2s)2(π2px)2(π2px)2(σ2pz)2

Bond order is calculated as the given formula below:

Bond order= ½ (Nb-Na)

Bond Order of  N2 =3

Conclusion:

We can conclude from the above that the bond order provides important information about N2 molecules and covalent bonding. Nitrogen is an element with 7 electrons in total, with 5 valence electrons in the outermost shell. Its octet is incomplete, so nitrogen shares an electron with other nitrogen atoms to complete it. As a result of the electron sharing, nitrogen forms covalent bonds and N2 becomes a diatomic molecule.

Is Nickel An Element: 9 Important Facts Explained!

by
15024772385 5102cb2db1 b 300x165 1

This article is about is is nickel an elementt and its properties like Lewis Structure, Nickel electronic configuration, valence electrons, Orbital diagram, crystal structure, Atomic properties, Physical, chemical, and nickel isotopes.

It is an element in the transition metal family with the atomic number 28 and the symbol Ni. With an atomic weight of 58.69, Nickel belongs to the group of block elements in the periodic table. This metal is lustrous and has a sliver-white color with a golden tint. It is ductile, and hard in strength used in making coins. Nickel electronic configuration is [Ar] 3d8, 4s2.

is nickle an element
Silvery – White Nickel Metal From Wikimedia

Nickel lewis structure

With Atomic no. 28 Nickel has 2 electrons in its outermost shell. Lewis dots are drawn using the electrons in the valence shells of atoms. Lewis structure represents the dot structure of valence electrons around the Nickel.

nickel
Lewis structure of Ni from Wikimedia

Nickel electron Configuration

A metal’s Nickel electronic configuration is defined by how its electrons are arranged around its nucleus at different energy levels.

Atomic No. of Ni = 28

Nickel belongs to d-block elements and the outermost shell consist of 2 electrons. Nickel is a transition metal element. Nickel is represented in two electronic configurations:

[Ar] 3d8, 4s2

[Ar] 3d9, 4s1

The Symbol [Argon] is the core state and these energy levels are very close to each other so there is a transition that occurs which is called d-d transitions. But there are some arguments about it, so according to experimental proof the electronic configuration is written in its lowest energy states i.e.

Electronic configuration of Ni = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d8

or

E.C = [Ar] 3d8, 4s2

What are valence electrons?

A valence electron is an electron that lies at the very outermost edge of a valence shell. Bonding and chemical reactions are carried out by electrons in the valence shell.

Ni has Atomic no. 28 having a valence shell that is 4th which consists of 2 valence electrons.

Valence electron of Ni = 2

Orbital diagram for nickel

The orbital diagram shows its pictorial distribution of electrons in the form of a picture and described it. For drawing the orbital picture of Ni two concepts should be known.

1. Hund’s rule: Every orbital is first single occupied according to its energy level, after which pairing occurs and all electrons of the same spin are in solely occupied orbitals. 

2. Pauli’s exclusion principle: For all four sets of quantum numbers, there cannot be two electrons of the same atoms, no same value.

According to the electronic configuration of Nickel Ar[ 3d8, 4s2 ], its electrons are distributed in 4 orbitals. The outermost shell of nickel is 4th, so these electrons are distributed in them.

8d90ea94 0c80 412e 9879 2f2faea4216e
Orbital diagram of Ni

Ground state electron configuration for nickel

Generally, Nickel’s ground state electronic configuration is written as follows: E.C of Ni in ground state =  [Ar] 3d8, 4s2

Ni crystal structure

An atomic no. 28 nickel consists of an FCC(Face centered Cubic) crystal structure with an atomic radius of 0.124nm.

Electronic configuration= [Ar] 3d8, 4s2

Atomic Radius = 0.124nm

Crystal Structure of Ni = FCC

27d06b6e d96c 461c a5c2 d29dc3c314ae
FCC Structure of Ni

The FCC crystal structure will change frequently into hcp (Hexagonal Close packing structure). An example of the Crystal structure is Nickel Arsenides

Nickel atoms at the center and Arsenide atoms surround the 6 corners of the octahedron. Cation is in gray shades and anion in light blue shades.

Strukturformel Nickelarsenid
Nickel Arsenides from Wikimedia

Nickel atomic properties

  1. Nickel belongs to the d-block element which is a transition metal element. According to its periodic table position, it belongs to period 4 and group 10. Because d-block elements are located between s and p-block elements, they have transition properties. It is the most abundant element that belongs to transition elements
  2. Atomic No. 28 and electronic configuration is  [Ar] 3d8, 4s2  , it follows 18 electrons rule and having +2 covalency.
  3. The Variable oxidation state of Ni = -2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3,+4  (7 oxidation state)
  4. The most stable oxidation state of Ni is +1,+2,+3,+4. Most common oxidation state=+2.
  5. Its oxides are basic.
  6. Electronegativity of Ni =1.91, so this occurs in the form of  Metal.
  7. The atomic radius of Ni =0.124nm.

Nickel Physical Properties

The physical properties of metal will explain through physical appearance.

  1. Colour of Nickel: A silvery-white, lustrous, hard, and tough metal than iron, exist in the form of pure metal and the formed alloy.
  2. State: Nickel is solid metal, which is blue or green. Nickel is found in the form of ores combined with iron and cobalt.
  3. Boling &Melting point: Nickel melts at 1453 degrees and boils at 2732 degrees Fahrenheit. 
  4. Ores: Nickel pentlandite [(Ni,Fe)9S8], Niccolite.
  5. Conductance: Due to the presence of valence electrons, it is a High conductor of heat and electricity.
  6. Magnetism: Nickel can be easily Magnetized, so behaves like ferromagnetic. Most of the meteorites contain nickel metals.

Nickel chemical properties

The chemical properties of an element defined when it reacts chemically with other elements and there are changes occur.

  1. It reacts with dilute acids and dissolves slowly in ammonia
  2. It is high resistance in nature, therefore no rusting and corrosion occurs.
  3. Nickel metal does not react with oxygen directly, but it will react and ignite in the air if it is in a dispersed state.
  4. Used to electroplate and make alloys of nickel.
  5. Nickel is act as a catalyst when it reacts with organic compounds and hydrogen.
  6. Nickel form a compound that reacts with carbon monoxide from carbonyl compounds.
  7. Nickel carbonyl compound is a colourless liquid and volatile.

Nickel Isotopes

  1. Nickel has 5 stable and 30 unstable isotopes.
  2. 5 stable isotopes are 58Ni, 60Ni, 61Ni, 62Ni, and 64Ni. 
  3. The occurs naturally abundant isotope is 58Ni (which occurs naturally at around 68.07%)
  4. 62Ni has a high range of nuclear energy and is used in nuclear binding energy.
  5. 62Ni is the heaviest isotope in the universe.
  6. These isotopes are helpful in the generation of some radioisotopes. There are 26 radioisotopes of nickel is present.
  7. 59Ni is the most stable radioisotope having a half-life is around 76000 years and some radioisotopes have a 60 hours half-life only, some are only 30 sec, so these are called meta states.
  8. Recently,78Ni has recorded a half-life of 110 milliseconds.

Conclusion:

Nickel Electronic configuration is important for explaining whole articles. Nickel electronic configuration tells us about its orbital diagram, and its oxidation state, and nickel electronic configuration also explains the concept of valence electrons. We will learn about the atomic properties, physical properties, and chemical properties of Nickel through nickel electronic configuration. In addition, Nickel electronic configuration will explain nickel isotopes.

Are Ketones Soluble:9 Facts You Should Know

by
3d577f5a 0cc0 4d97 8c26 c04bf2aa0459 300x283 1

This article illustrates the solubility of ketones, it also explains some questions: Why are ketones Soluble in Water, NaOH, HCl, Ether, Diethyl ether, and H2SO4. Are all Ketones soluble in water and What are ketones soluble in?

Ketones are the carbonyl group and due to the presence of lone pairs on the oxygen atom ketone becomes polar because there is the generation of electronegativity difference between oxygen and a carbon atom.

Are ketones soluble in water?

Ketones consist of the carbonyl group and due to the presence of lone pairs on the oxygen atom ketone becomes polar because there is the generation of electronegativity difference between oxygen and a carbon atom. Lower ketones are soluble in water. Ketones do not form Hydrogen bonds themselves but they show hydrogen bonding with water molecules. Thus it makes ketone soluble in water.

3d577f5a 0cc0 4d97 8c26 c04bf2aa0459
Hydrogen Bonding in ketones with water

As small molecules of ketone are easily soluble in water but as the chain of the molecules increases, they are difficult to soluble in water. This can happen as one slightly positive charge of hydrogen is enough to attract the lone pair electrons of oxygen for the formation of the hydrogen bond. Another thing is that there is the presence of dispersion and dipole-dipole Vanderwaal forces take place between the molecules.

Are all ketones soluble in water?

Generally, All ketones have the nature to be soluble in water, but as the chain length of the alkyl group increases their solubility decreases. So no, all ketones are not soluble in water. In water, small ketones form hydrogen bonds with water molecules and are soluble. But as the chain length increases the solubility decreases, as a result, there is less energy is released and the reaction becomes less favorable making higher ketone less soluble in water. 

are ketones soluble
Ketone Solubility in water from Wikimedia

Reason for insolubility:

Smaller ketones contain a highly polar group of carbonyl that helps to make the strongest bond with water molecules, that is why they are soluble in water. But in contrast to Higher ketones, the chain length increases which makes the tail portion of ketones non-polar, due to hydrocarbon groups present in them and that decreases the energy and less favorable. That is why not all ketones are soluble in water.

What are ketones soluble in?

Smaller ketones like propanone are soluble in all proportions of water, but as the chain length of ketones increases their solubility decreases. Generally, higher ketones are soluble in organic solvents such as ether, methanol, chloroform, benzene, etc.

Why are ketones soluble in water?

Reason: Polar molecules dissolve in a polar solvent. A polar solvent such as water and ketone are polar due to the presence of lone-pairs on oxygen atoms. Ketones are soluble in water the reason that there is hydrogen bonding between lower molecules of ketones with water molecules that’s why they are easily soluble in water. These ketones do not form hydrogen bonding with themselves, bonding between them is due to the reasons of two forces  that affect them as follows:

  1. Dispersion force 
  2. Dipole – Diploe attraction

This attraction forces release the energy that needs to help break down the water molecules bond with ketones. But as the chain length increases it will decrease the solubility of ketone in water molecules due to the bigger hydrocarbon chain. Unlike hydrogen bonds with other molecules, hydrogen bonds with water molecules do not occur between ketones. Propanone is a lower ketone, that is miscible in water in all the proportions of water.

Are ketones soluble in NaOH?

Ketones are polar molecules, being polar they are soluble in water because water is also polar. This will happen due to dipole interaction with each other and there is H-bonding between ketones and hydrogen of water molecules. Lower ketones are soluble in water molecules but higher ketones are insoluble and firstly tested with a 5% solution of NaOH which ionize the molecules and helps in solubility.

The solubility of ketones in NaOH is due to the presence of one reaction which is Aldol Condensation.

Aldol condensation :

Usually, this reaction occurs in Carbonyl compounds in which Alpha Hydrogen or Alpha carbon is present. In the case of Ketone(Propanone), there is the presence of Alpha carbon which consists of Alpha hydrogen. This reaction will lead increase in the chain length.

Propanone(CH3-CO-CH3 ) is three carbon compounds, out of three two carbon are alpha carbons with alpha hydrogen and the other is one is in the carbonyl group. In the end, we are left with Alpha- and beta-unsaturated products.

3c6b9def bc08 4d56 91e7 c9490e44aa15
Structure of Propanone

Thus ketones are soluble in Strong Bases like NaOH and the reaction is as follows:

99ef3f3a d006 45f9 b0cd cd342f169283
Aldol Condensation

In this reaction, there is the production of two different products, these are beta-hydroxy ketones and beta-hydroxy aldehyde.

Are ketones soluble in HCl?

Ketones are soluble in Conc.HCl due to its polar nature and in presence of Zinc amalgam carbonyl group reduces into the CH2 group. This Reaction is called Clemmensen Reduction.

Example: Propanone (CH3-CO-CH3 ) reduces to propane in presence of Zn/Hg(Zinc Amalgam) and concentrated HCl.

76246c88 60b0 430e a4f4 b6d89ab51b9d
Clemmensen Reduction

Is ketone soluble in the ether?

Usually, Ketone is soluble in Organic solvents like ethers. Ketones’ boiling point is higher than that of ether due to dipole interaction in ketones. 

When intermolecular forces of two substances are similar then there is intermixing takes place. Ketones and ether are miscible due to dispersion and dipole interaction between them here are no H-bonding but dipole interaction due to which it is soluble in organic solvents. Lower ketones are soluble in water molecules but higher ketones are insoluble, they are soluble in organic solvents whose nature is polar.

Are ketones soluble in diethyl ether?

Diethyl ether(C2H5)2O, contains oxygen atoms and has dipole moment and bond angle due to which it becomes polar and this will make it polar as ketone is polar that has properties soluble in polar compounds. Thus Ketones(R2 C=O) are soluble in Diethyl ethers.

These ketones do not form hydrogen bonding with themselves, bonding between them is due to the reasons of two forces that affect them as follows: Dispersion force and Dipole – Diploe attraction this attraction forces release the energy that needs to help break down the water molecules’ bond with ketones. But as the chain length increases it will decrease the solubility of ketone in water molecules due to the bigger hydrocarbon chain.

Why are ketones soluble in H2SO4?

The compounds that contain Oxygen and nitrogen in their functional group are generally soluble in concentrated Sulphuric acids (H2SO4). There is self-reaction that takes place in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid, formation of aromatic compounds occurs.

Ketones react with acid to undergo condensation reactions and this reaction is called an acid-catalyzed aldol condensation reaction. Acetone(Propanone) is absorbed by sulphuric acids(H2SO4) at a 75% concentration of acid in the solution and the reaction is irreversible.

Are Ketones Polar:5 Facts You Should Know

by
c9b2fa73 3337 4815 9dde 0e739832bfd9 300x69 1

In this article, we will illustrate are ketones polar and their Fact, and also explain How are ketone polar, why ketones are more polar, why are ketones more polar than an ester, and why ketones are more polar than amines.

Ketones are the functional group and it is related to the carbonyl group. In this carbon is bonded with oxygen and other alkyl groups. Ketones group present in Sugar and work in our body effectively.  Below we will See 5 facts about ketone’s polarity.

Ketones are Polar:5 Facts 

Ketones are polar due to the facts: 

  1. Ketones are highly polar molecules than aldehyde and ester.  
  1. Ketones do not have a hydrogen bond that is directly attached to the oxygen atom.  
  1. Ketones are highly reactive   
  1. Due to electronegativity difference, there is the formation of dipole and dipole-dipole interaction occurs.  
  1. Vanderwall dispersion occurs in ketone molecules. 

How are ketones Polar? 

Firstly, we will explain about Carbonyl Group: Carbonyl Group consists of a carbon-oxygen double bond. The Hybridization of carbon is SP2. The Structure of the Carbonyl group is a Trigonal planner, consisting 3-sigma bond and one pi bond and a 120-degree angle are present between each bond. So, these bonds are polar due to the electronegativity difference between carbon and oxygen atom.

Ketones are examples of a carbonyl group consisting of carbon-oxygen double bonds(R2C=O). Here R2 means the alkyl group attached to the carbon atoms. R2 will affect the polar nature of ketone. Ketones have no hydrogen bond but they form a hydrogen bond with water molecules. However, the ketone is highly polar but it does not have a direct bond with hydrogen. Example: Propanone, Butanone  

c9b2fa73 3337 4815 9dde 0e739832bfd9
Polarity of ketones

Why are ketones more polar?

Ketones are more polar due to the electronegative difference being more, therefore, carbon and hydrogen, oxygen attracts electrons from carbon, and due to this, there is the generation of slightly positive and negative charge on it. This difference creates a polar molecule and that’s why ketones have become polar.

For example, Ketone has higher boiling points due to the presence of the alkyl group that donates electrons, around the C=O groups and makes the molecules higher polar. During the reaction, a double bond between carbon and oxygen is broken and this will lead to the formation of Water molecules. 

are ketones polar
Generation of the dipole in Ketone

Reason: 

  1. Oxygen having lone pair is more electronegative than carbon.  
  1. The Carbonyl group is polar due to a slightly negative charge on oxygen and positive charge on carbon and this creates a dipole.  
  1. Due to this dipole generation ketone becomes polar.  
  1. And polarity of ketones influences chemical and physical properties.   
  1. This Dipole creates Vanderwall dipole-dipole attractions. As the dispersion forces increase there is the generation of the dipole to the nearest atom.  

Nucleophilic attack on Carbonyl Group as Shown below:

0b4710ef 1172 4881 b9ad d35d079b3b80
Nucleophile attack on Carbonyl Group

Are ketones more polar than esters?

Ester properties are very similar to that of ketones but they are less polar than ketones the reason behind it is that the polarity of the ester is not enough to make it more polar.

Ester has the chemical formula RCOOR having a carbonyl group formed from carboxylic acids, alchole, and some inorganic acids. Ester has an alkoxy group which is formed by replacing the hydroxyl group in carboxylic acids.   

Being the presence of carbonyl group ketone and ester, both are polar but ketone is more polar than ester due to the difference in dipole-dipole attraction and difference in Vanderwaal’s force of dispersions. Ester has a weaker bond formation Ester has a weaker hydrogen bond formation and their dipole-dipole interaction is weaker than ketones. The boiling point of the ester is lower than that of ketones due to the presence of carbonyl bonds.  

Are ketones more polar than amines?  

Amines have hydrogen bonds but ketones are not having hydrogen bonds and this will make ketones more polar due to the presence of oxygen atoms. And more electronegative oxygen atoms present in the ketone make it more polar than amines.

Reason: The electronegativity of oxygen is more than that of nitrogen due to this oxygen attracts more electrons towards itself and the molecule becomes more polar than the nitrogen atom.

SP3 Lewis Structure: Drawings, Hybridization, Shape, Charges, Pair, And Detailed Facts

by
87f84f59 a491 4d1b a5a5 871dac7d046b 300x282 1

This article Illustrates all information about the Lewis Dot Structure. Lewis dot structure is useful in drawing the molecules and for finding the Hybridization, shapes, formal charges, and pairing of electrons.

SP3 Lewis structure is called Lewis dot structure or electron dot structure of electrons in molecules. Lewis structure represents the total number of lone pairs or Valence Shell electrons present in each atom of the molecule. This concept follows the “octet rule.”

How to Draw the Lewis structure for SP3?  

Following are the steps for drawing lewis’s structure:    

  1. Firstly, Select the Central Atom of molecules (Criteria of Central Atom are the least electronegative atom and having the largest size or highest atomic number) and try to maintain maximum covalency. Hydrogen and halogen can never be central atoms and other atoms spaced evenly around them.
  2. Calculate the valence shell electrons of the molecules by adding all valence electrons of each atom present in the molecule.Total electron= Valence electron of all atoms+ (-ve Charge)- (+ve Charge)   
  3. Calculate the bond pairs electrons= 2* No. of bonds.  
  4. Calculate the lone pairs of electrons = Total electrons- Bond pairs electrons. Lone pairs are used to satisfy the octet rule by assigning them to each atom or as double or triple bonds.  
  5. Draw the skeleton of molecules using a single bond between the central atom and other atoms around it, followed by the octet rule.  
  6. Finally, check the total electrons and complete the octet of all atoms around the central atom of molecules. Only the valance electrons are considered for drawing the Lewis structure, and the remaining valence electrons are used to complete the central atom octet by forming Covalent bonds.

SP3 Lewis Structure shape: What will be the Lewis Dot structure of CO2? 

Lewis dot structure is the simplest representation of electrons around the individual atoms.

Following are the steps to draw the Lewis Structure:

  • Total Valence electron of CO2 molecule = 16 
  • Central atom is C (Least Electronegative) =4 valence electrons
  • Surrounding atoms is O= 6 valence electrons (2*6=12)
  • Bond pairs electrons= 4( Single Bond line)
  • Lone pairs electrons= 6 (used in form of Lone pair or Double and Triple bonds)
  • Dot Structure of CO2 :
download 2 1
SP3 lewis Structure from Wikimedia

SP3 Lewis Structure shape:

Lewis dot structure does not show the shape of the molecules. This is only the representation of electrons around the atoms.

They only show the connectivity of the atoms. By the connection of atoms, we can predict the shape of the molecules. This will show the geometry of molecules.

image 31
lewis structure and Geometry from chemed.chem.purdue.edu

SP3 Lewis Structure Formal Charge: How to calculate a formal charge?

The formal charge is the difference between electrons and an atom consisting of that electron to owes that in particularly SP3 lewis Structure.

The formal charge is the resonance of electrons around the atoms and calculated mathematically by using the formula, Formal charge= Valence electron – bond pairs electrons – lone pairs electrons.

Example: Nitrate ion (NO3–)

To calculate the formal charge on each atom use mathematical equation,

Nitrogen= 5(valence electron)- 4(bond pair electrons)-0(Lone pair electrons) =+1

Oxygen = 6-2-4 =0,

Oxygen = 6-1-6 =-1

Oxygen = 6-1-6 =-1

InkedLewis structure NO3 LI
Formal Charge and lewis Structure from Wikimedia

Another Example: CO2

Carbon = 4-0-4=0

2Oxygen =6-4-2=0

So, the CO2 molecule has Zero formal charge.

download
SP3 Lewis structure Formal Charge of CO2 from wikimedia

We must write a formal charge for each atom except that has 0 Formal charges. So,(NO3–) the molecule should be a draw as the -ve formal charge should be present on the molecule which attracts electrons strongly, and the positive charge on the atom which attracts fewer electrons towards itself.

SP3 Lewis Structure lone pair: How to find Lone pairs of electrons?

Lone pairs of electrons are those electrons that do not undergo any covalent bonding, so these electrons are called unshared pairs of electrons or nonbonding electrons.

An SP3 Hybrid orbital consists of lone pairs of electrons, this can be explained with an example of CO2. We can only Count the no. of bond pairs or lone pairs around the central atom.

Example: CO2

Calculate valance electrons =16 electrons

Lone pairs electrons= 6 (due to oxygen atoms) out of 6 (4 are unbonded pairs of electrons).

SP3 Hybridization: Explain the process of Hybridization?

Hybridization is the process of overlapping two different energy orbitals to form new orbitals. Overlapping orbitals interact with each other by head-to-head or tail-to-tail and by sideways overlapping.

For SP3 hybridization, there should be a presence of one S orbital and three P orbitals and by mixing this orbital formation, a new SP3 hybrid orbital takes place.

Example of SP3 Hybridization: CH4

Carbon: 1s2, 2s2, 2p2

Hydrogen: 1s1

87f84f59 a491 4d1b a5a5 871dac7d046b
Hybridiztion of CH4

SP3 Lewis Structure Resonance: What is resonance?

Resonance is defined as the delocalization of electrons from one atom to another atom without disturbing its position and the formation of a stable resonating structure in which equal distribution of charges takes place.

This could be explained with an example of NO3- (= 24 valence electrons). First, we draw the Lewis structure of NO3- and then calculate its formal Charge. Place the Nitrogen in the center and connect it with a single bond with Oxygen. After this distribute the valence electrons to the surrounding atoms of nitrogen by following the “octet rule”, and the remaining electrons to the central atom.

Resonance in NO3– :

download 1
Resonance in from Wikimedia

Resonance structure is differed only in the electron’s pairs and not in the placement of atoms. The place of an atom is fixed and only the movement of electrons takes place in the resonance. So, these three structures below in the image are equivalent to each other.

SP3 Lewis Structure Octet Rule: What is the octet rule and how does it work?

When electrons gain, lose or are shared, a stable compound is formed, and there should be 8 electrons in their outermost shell.

The octet rule refers to filling the outermost electron with eight electrons at their highest energy level during Lewis’s structure drawing.

Example: NaCl

sp3 lewis structure
Octet rule from Wikimedia

SP3 Polar and Non-Polar: What are polar and non-polar molecules?

Polar Molecules are those which have a huge electronegativity difference between the atoms. Two atoms do not share electrons equally during covalent bond formation. For Example, H2O in this oxygen is more electronegative than Hydrogen, and sharing of electrons is not equal. Some other examples are SO2, H2S, NH3, etc.

Nonpolar Molecules are those in which electrons are evenly distributed and have similar electronegativity or the difference between the electronegativity is very less. For example, CO2, CCl4, Homonuclear Diatomic elements, etc.

How can we tell a Lewis Structure is polar or non-polar?

The answer to this question is the Lewis Dot structure and visualize the Dipole moment of that molecules. The dipole moment is a vector quantity. If we take an example of HF, in this Florine most electronegative elements so that end of the molecule becomes slightly negative and other ends of the molecules become slightly positive, there is the generation of two-pole. And a molecule with two different poles is called Dipoles.

Some steps for considering the molecule are polar or nonpolar are:

Frequently asked questions (FAQ):

SP3 Uses:

  1. Lewis dot structure is a simple form representing the electrons around the individual atoms.
  2. Bond pairs represent the line between two atoms.
  3. Lone pairs are the electrons that are not participating in any bond formation that can either be used as it is or in resonance structures.
  4. Lewis dot structure is used to get the best configurations by satisfying the octet rule and formal charges and other important expectations of the molecules.

Also Read: