Hi....I am Aheli Dey, I have completed my Masters in Zoology. My specialization is in Parasitology and Immunology. I am very enthusiastic in learning new things. I prefer both hard and smart work.
DNA replication is a fundamental process in all living organisms, responsible for the accurate duplication of genetic information. However, errors can occur during this process, leading to mutations that can have significant consequences for the organism. Understanding the mechanisms and factors that contribute to errors in DNA replication is crucial for understanding the origins of … Read more
Basidiomycota are a kind of fungal group. It is a large phylum which is diverse of fungi group. Basidiomycota examples are jelly, mushrooms etc. These are the key components of nature as decomposers.
As they produce basidiospores, they are different from the other group of fungi. It is also known as club fungi as the basidiospores are club shaped. Basidium is the spore producing thing. Basidiomycota examples are like Agaricus (known as mushroom), Ustilago (known as smut) and Puccinia (known as rust fungus).
It is a well-known mushroom which is edible and now it is famous in the whole world. It is one of the spread-out Basidiomycota examples which is usually found in East Asia but now it is cultivated in the entire world. It is also used in remedies.
It is originated from Japan and hugely used in Japanese cuisine. Enoki means shin which is velvet in type. It belongs to the family Physalacriaceae. Because of it in 2020 many people died and got unwell as it was not cooked well. These Basidiomycota examples need to cook properly to demolish the pathogens.
Chaga Mushroom
Its common name is chaga but its actual name is Inonotus obliquus. It belongs to the family Hymenochaetaceae. It is deleterious for some trees like birch. The neb of the tree is sterile. It is not regularly formed and also looks like burning charcoal.
It helps in oxidation and it also helps the low blood pressure patients. Basidiomycota examples uplift the immune power by the antioxidants. But because of the high level of oxalates, kidney stones can occur.
Hen of the wood
It is usually found at the root side of some specific trees like maple or oaks. These Basidiomycota examples grow typically in late summer till the starting of autumn. In China, Europe and North America it is mainly found. But now anywhere it can be grown. Its actual name is Grifola frondosa and it is a kind of mushroom.
Matsutake
It is originated from Japan and hugely used in Japanese cuisine. It is a kind of edible mushroom. But now it is most wanted mushroom among the whole world. So many countries grow this like East Asia, Europe and North America. These Basidiomycota examples have an aromatic odor which is spicy.
Oyster Mushroom
It is also a common mushroom and its other names are hiratake, oyster fungus or Pleurotus ostreatus. This is edible and there is one type named king oyster mushroom. These Basidiomycota examples cultivated in the whole world for the business. It was first invented in Germany during the time of World War I.
These Basidiomycota examples have 2 colors like brown and white and it is also an edible mushroom. These 2 have 2 different names in 2 different states of adult. It is usually found in the grasslands of 2 places of Europe and North America.
Its taste is fine and it is 6 inches long from the ground. The gills of the caps are finely placed and seen openly. Its flavor is full with meat like rich texture. Its soil should be mixed with straws.
Lion’s Mane
These Basidiomycota examples are edible and usually found in North America, Europe and Asia. But now economically it is found in the whole world. It belongs to the tooth fungus group and its actual name is Hericium erinaceus.
Its structure is spine like as its common name. in one spine a single lump is found at the base of the hardwoods. These Basidiomycota examples are used usually in culinary use. It is not mischievous but allergies can be occurred in some cases.
Lingzhi
It is a 2000 years old mushroom which is also known as reishi. In many years back it is known as “mushroom of immortality” as it is rich in nutrition. These Basidiomycota examples belong to the Ganoderma species.
They boost the internal immune system and may be used in cancer patients. It is given to the high blood pressure patients to low it. It is good for brain and uplift the stress. It improves the sleep and good for high cholesterol patients.
Gilled Mushrooms
These Basidiomycota examples are known as euagarics and belong to the order Agaricales. It is known and common type of mushroom which has 413 genera, 33 (known and still alive) families and over 13000 (known and described) family.
It is terrestrial and found in both woodlands and grasslands. It is found in many countries among the world and varies in every genus. Also, they have 6 (not living) genera and many fossils.
Chicken of the wood
These Basidiomycota examples are edible mushrooms and also known as chicken mushroom. It belongs to the Laetiporus genus and it is another name is Laetiporus sulphureus (commonly known as Sulphur shelf). Its another name is “chicken of the woods”.
These Basidiomycota examples are also looks like meaty texture and tastes like meaty substance. It is a good source of Potassium and Vitamin C. it has various colors like salmon orange color in white oak tree with light red white pores. It grows from spring to fall.
It is slender and fan like shape. It is semicircular or irregular. It can be from smooth to wrinkled texture. Fruit body is the outside and Murrill species complex is its woody fungi part known.
These Basidiomycota examples are edible mushrooms and also known as King oyster mushroom. It is found in many parts of Asia along with Europe, Middle East and North Africa. Its other name is Pleurotus eryngii.
Its shelf life is longer than any other mushrooms (like 10 days where others have 7 days). These should be kept in fridge. It grows from the base of the hardwoods and its shaft is 3 to 10 cm long. The fruit body is up to 300 grams under the normal condition.
Agaricomycetes
It is a big group under Basidiomycota examples. This taxon is similar to Homobasidiomycetes or Holobasidiomycetes (by Hibbett and Thorn). They mainly have the common cap with stalk structure. But some Basidiomycota examples have crust structure fruit body.
Turkey tail
These Basidiomycota examples are edible mushrooms and found in the whole world. Its other names are Trametes versicolor Coriolus versicolor and Polyporus versicolor. ‘Versicolor’ means many colors and that means this mushroom has variety of colors.
It is a kind of small, rough and tough fungus which is bracket like. In dead woods it grows like the layers (like with tier) in oak, beech etc. It is mild in taste and tastes like earthy. That means it is quiet bitter in taste (not like other mushrooms) and grows in May through December. Many things though depend on the season and the weather conditions.
Wood ear
It belongs to the order Auriculariales and it has many more names like jelly ear (English name), Judas’s ear or Jew’s ear, Auricularia Auricula Judae. They have brown colored basidiocarps which may be gelatinous. These Basidiomycota examples have ear like shape (name so).
They grow on older woods and look like ears. It is cooked in many ways and tastes good. But its natural taste is muddy and earthy. Many ingredients make it flavorful. It is full with nutritious value of Vitamin B complex and many bioactive compounds.
These Basidiomycota examples are edible mushrooms and also known as Volvariella volvacea. It is found in entire world and originated from East and South Asia. It is cooked and served as Asian cuisine.
It is found and cultivated from the fresh areas and found in canned or dried version. It is the substitute of button mushroom and tastes mildly musty. Its paddy and straw flavor have a lot of nutritious values.
Rust
It is a kind of disorder and belongs to the order Pucciniales. It has 168 genera and at about 7000 species. Maximum from the genus Puccinia. These Basidiomycota examples are toxin pathogens with many characteristics.
Some care can prevent this trouble like dusting Sulphur. Some organic pestisides are neem oil. The illness can be identified by the color of the rust and its patches on the leaves mainly.
Agaricus
It is a big group under Basidiomycota examples which contains both species over 300 members in the whole world. They contain both venomed and edible mushrooms found in the field. It is cultivated from the West part of Europe.
To wrap up the post, Basidiomycota examples are a large family of fungi over 40000 species. It mainly consists with mushrooms and they can be both edible and venomed. There are some pathogens also like rust. They are filamentous and bear spores (basidiospores).
In their name it is cleared that these extremophiles are those who can survive in extreme situations or extreme environment. Examples of extremophiles are acidophiles, halophiles etc.
That means these kinds of organisms can live in to most high to most low ph, acidity, salinity, temperature, radiation and other situations or environments. The most known examples of extremophiles are Deinococcus radiodurans. They can show their power to live in inhospitable circumstances.
These heat loving types of organisms are found in heat producing or heat prone area. Under this type the creatures live in the hot atmosphere like volcano, deep sea in high temperature or around geysers etc. Examples of extremophiles under this category survive from 113 up to 251 degrees (Fahrenheit).
It is exactly opposite of the thermophiles. It is cold loving organisms which can survive under extreme cold environment or circumstances. They live usually in polar seas or Antarctica regions. They are also famous as cryophiles. This kind of examples of extremophiles can survive from 5 to 15 degrees (Fahrenheit).
Halophile
These salt loving types of organisms are found in high salt producing or salt prone area. Under this type the creatures live in the salty atmosphere like salt lakes (e.g.- Great Salt Lake) or salt lumps. It includes halobacterium. This kind of examples of extremophile possess mainly the prokaryotic bacteria.
Acidophile
These acid attracting types of organisms are found in high acid producing or acid prone area. Under this type the creatures live in the acidic atmosphere like volcanic landscapes. It can survive under 1 to 5 pH which is high in acidic value. This kind of examples of extremophiles include eukaryotes, bacteria and usually archaea which are mesophilic in nature.
Alkaliphile
It is exactly opposite of the acidophiles. It is alkaline loving organisms which can survive under extreme alkalinity environment or circumstances. In lignocellulolytic it is used widely. It can survive under 9 to high pH which is high in alkaline value. This kind of examples of extremophiles include bacteria and other organisms.
Piezophile
These kinds of microorganisms can survive optimally under high pressure or high hydrostatic pressure. It is found in subsurface of the terrestrial location and in ocean ditches. These weight loving creatures are also famous as the name of barophile. This kind of examples of extremophiles include deep sea bacteria, archaea etc like Thermococcus piezophilus.
Hyperthermophile
Upgrading the thermophiles there is another subdivision which is extremely heat loving and kind of different in nature than thermophiles. They have several mechanisms to support it. It can tolerate and grow in 80o to 120o C. This kind of examples of extremophiles live in the smoker vents of deep sea.
Archaeans
The unicellular microbes represent this kind of group. This is halophilic. This is bacteria and archaea family and it possesses 48 genera and 177 species. It belongs to the huge domain Archaea. It contains the halobacteria as well. This kind of examples of extremophiles found in many places.
Xerophile
It can survive in an extreme dry condition. It can be both Psychrophile or thermophile that means they can grow in both hot and cold environment but it should be dry. Its best pH is 2 to 3. This kind of examples of extremophiles found in Atacama Desert. It works in very low water. It also possesses bacteria, archaea etc.
Toxicophile
It can survive in an extreme toxic condition. Many ingredients that make the toxins in nature. But these organisms can live in this environment. Extreme toxicity is its comfortable zone. Many bacteria are including this group. This kind of examples of extremophiles found in biotic sewage or factory or in dissolved biotic matter.
Radiophile
These radiation loving types of organisms are found in radiation producing or radiation prone area. Usually, found in radiation lab or radiation factories. Some rays or exotic materials are largely tolerant for this group of extremophiles. This kind of examples of extremophiles can survive in high radiation.
Deinococcus radiodurans
It is radiation resistant creature found in very first time and very well examined. It is the model organism of extremophiles. It contains many kinds of extremophile characters like Xerophile and Piezophile. This kind of examples of extremophiles found and grow in radioactive pond which is used to cool the fuel. It is so useful as an extremophile in radiation factory.
This represents the bacteria group mainly. They are hyperthermophilic. This kind of examples of extremophiles possess Clostridia, Fervidobacterium, Rhodothermus etc.
Thermus aquaticus
This one and Thermococcus litoralis basically the thermophiles which are used as the enzymes being an extremophile. It is used in criminal cases like DNA fingerprinting (Taq DNA polymerase). This kind of examples of extremophiles are kind of photosynthetic bacteria which can live up to 176o F (80o C). it I discovered by Thomas Brock in 1960s.
Hypolith
These kinds of microorganisms can survive optimally under high rocky environment. It lives and grows in rocky soil surface. It is found usually in rocks of cold desert. This kind of examples of extremophiles found its carbon source from carbon dioxide.
Pyrolobus fumarii
It is radiation resistant as like Deinococcus radiodurans. This can live up to 114o C. This kind of examples of extremophiles found in Northern Seas in the vents of submarine which are usually hydrothermal. The temperature is 100o C and above is the suitable environment for this bacterium.
Metallotolerant
Under this group the organisms are extremely tolerant in heavy metals. This kind of examples of extremophiles found in factories of metals and also can grow in dissolved metallic circumstances.
Methanogen
Under this group the organisms’ forms methane. It is a type of archaea. They form it from the hydrogen and carbon dioxide. This kind of examples of extremophiles found in many places like garbage or dumping ground.
Snottite
This type of organisms is also named as “snoticle”. This kind of examples of extremophiles are single cell bacteria (unicellular). Usually, they made colonies of cave living organisms which are known as snottites.
Capnophile
Under this group the organisms are extremely tolerant in high concentration of Carbon dioxide. So, it is found in factories which produces high amount of Carbon dioxide. This kind of examples of extremophiles can survive in low oxygen and it includes many bacteria which live and grow in this environment.
Tardigrades
It is way more extremotolerant and one of the most elastic things for the human. It is eight legged creature and the size are too tiny that it needs high power microscope. This kind of examples of extremophiles bear water and can survive in high heat, cold, salinity, pressure, dryness, lack of O2 etc. That means it is Thermophile, Psychrophile, Acidophile, Piezophile all in one. Even it can survive in space or solar system.
Cyanobacteria
Can function in a very low pH and made up its own food. They are small in size and unicellular. This kind of examples of extremophiles grow the colonies in a huge amount. Live in acidic environment in stomach and even can work in space. Found in usually edaphic and hypolithic places like Namib Desert. But otherwise, they are found in many common places too.
Sea monkeys
It is a kind of shrimp live in ocean under the high salinity and usually dwells in salt lakes (Great Salt Lake) or in salt swamps or seas (Dead Sea). This kind of examples of extremophiles though found in all over the world. Its another name is Artemia salina.
It is a family of Psychrophile. Actually, these kind of insects works under this group. It is found only in very low temperature like mountains, glaciers, stagnant ice tec. This kind of examples of extremophiles are not found in all over the world.
Cellulomonas
It is a genus of bacteria. They are gram positive and rod shaped. They are extremophiles because they have the ability to digest cellulose using some enzymes. They are endoglucanase and exoglucanase. This kind of examples of extremophiles are under the members of Actinomycetota.
Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans
It is a widely studied bacteria which is found in sewage of mine. It is a prokaryote which is acidophilic in nature. That is why it is named so. This kind of examples of extremophiles found in naturally low pH places or anthropogenic places. It is used for bioleaching of copper.
Thermus thermophilus
It is a gram-negative bacterium which is thermophilic and can grow in the temperature of 65 degree Centigrade or 149 degrees Fahrenheit. It is hugely used in the biotechnological applications. They may be manipulative model genetic organisms or may be biology systems or genomics of structure.
Geobacillus
It is a gram positive and rod-shaped bacterium. It is a kind of thermophiles. This kind of examples of extremophiles can live and grow in 55 to 65 degrees Centigrade. It is found in hot springs or canned foods or dairy factories or in vegetables too.
Arthrobacter
Its growth cycle is like the rod coccus. This kind of examples of extremophiles found in soils or subsurface of plants etc. It is a kind of genus which possesses the obligate aerobes bacteria.
Nostoc Commune
They are the part of cyanobacteria of nostoc. It is also known as star jelly or mare’s egg or witch’s butter. This kind of examples of extremophiles fix the nitrogen from the atmosphere to where there is no nitrogen. Photosynthetic pigments are present and thylakoids are present in cytoplasm.
There are many types of extremophiles discussed before. But there is main 4 types which are considered as the most known and famous extremophiles. Examples of extremophiles include many factors.
The 4 types are acidophiles, halophiles, psychrophiles, radiophiles. Examples of extremophiles which can be considered as one of the most known is Tardigrades that can bear water in any situation like dryness or cold or extreme hot temperature or in toxic places or in lack of oxygen etc.
Examples of extremophiles animals
The main microbes which do well work as extremophiles are specially belong to the bacteria group like Archeae or Eukarya. They can be sometimes eukaryotes or protists like fungi, algae and protozoa.
Deinococcus radiodurans is the most known extremophiles. More examples of extremophiles are Cellulomonas, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, Thermus aquaticus, Thermus thermophilus, Thermococcus litoralis, Pyrolobus fumarii, Geobacillus, Arthrobacter, Bacillus pumilus, Polaromonas vacuolata, Nostoc Commune etc.
Examples of archaea extremophiles
Maximum extremophiles are under this Archaea family. Examples of extremophiles are usually unicellular, microorganisms and can survive in extreme situations like dryness or cold or heat or pressure etc.
Extremophiles are also included under bacteria family. Examples of extremophiles are usually unicellular, microorganisms and can survive in extreme situations like dryness or cold or heat or pressure etc.
There are many bacterial extremophiles recently known. E. coli is one of them. In Japan it was invented. Though cyanobacteria are known as extremophiles from very first time. More examples of extremophiles are Artemia salina, Helicobacter pylori bacteria, Gloeocapsa cyanobacteria, Tardigrades etc.
How do extremophiles survive?
Some extremophiles are adopted with the nature they survive through the process of evolution. They may grow or shed an organ or developed another enzyme. They may find some particular niche for development.
For examples of extremophiles, Psychrophiles live in a very low temperature. They do it such way that extremophiles developed some extra substances. That may be some glycerol or any antifreeze proteins. They can low the freezing point of water and live by the several degrees. This is a kind of way to survive.
Usually, extremophiles live in their suitable places. But they can also live in normal environment too. Examples of extremophiles like cyanobacteria can live in both circumstances.
Comparing the environment, extremophiles live in many places like thermophiles in hot places like lava, volcano. In other side, Psychrophiles in cold and low temperature like glaciers, mountains etc. Examples of extremophiles usually survive in extreme nature (as mentioned in the name) like dryness, toxins etc.
Bacteria are typically known for their haploid nature, possessing a single copy of their genetic material. However, there are some exceptions to this general rule, and understanding the nuances of bacterial ploidy is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of microbial biology.
Bacterial Ploidy: The Norm and the Exceptions
Bacteria are predominantly monoploid, meaning they contain a single copy of their chromosome. This is the most common and well-understood state of bacterial genomes. However, there are a few notable exceptions to this rule:
Lactococcus lactis: The laboratory strains MG1363 and IL1403 of this lactic acid bacterium are known to be diploid, possessing two copies of their chromosome.
Dairy Strains of Lactococcus lactis: In addition to the laboratory strains, several dairy-associated strains of Lactococcus lactis have also been observed to be diploid.
Escherichia coli: While the majority of E. coli cells are monoploid, subpopulations of this bacterium can become diploid through the process of DNA replication. However, these diploid cells are not stable and eventually revert to the monoploid state.
Ploidy and Bacterial Community Composition
Interestingly, the ploidy level of bacteria can have measurable effects on the composition of bacterial communities. A study of the wheat root-associated bacterial microbiome revealed that ploidy level correlated with subtle changes in community structure:
Actinobacteria: This bacterial class was present in greater relative abundance in polyploid root samples.
Lower Abundant Classes: Several less abundant bacterial classes were only detected in the polyploid fractions, particularly in the rhizosphere (the soil immediately surrounding the roots).
These findings suggest that variations in ploidy level can influence the relative abundance and distribution of different bacterial taxa within a given microbial community.
Genome Copy Number Diversity in Proteobacteria
A study of four proteobacterial species, a diverse group of gram-negative bacteria, revealed a wide range of genome copy numbers:
Species
Ploidy Level
Caulobacter crescentus
Monoploid
Azotobacter vinelandii
Mono-/Oligoploid and Polyploid (depending on growth conditions)
This diversity in genome copy number highlights the fact that bacterial ploidy is not a one-size-fits-all phenomenon, and can vary significantly even within a single taxonomic group.
Factors Influencing Bacterial Ploidy
The factors that contribute to the establishment and maintenance of bacterial ploidy are not fully understood, but several potential mechanisms have been proposed:
Environmental Conditions: The ploidy level of some bacteria, such as Azotobacter vinelandii, can be influenced by growth conditions, with different ploidy states observed under varying environmental circumstances.
Genome Replication Dynamics: The process of DNA replication in bacteria can sometimes result in the temporary formation of diploid cells, as seen in Escherichia coli. However, these diploid cells are not stable and eventually revert to the monoploid state.
Evolutionary Advantages: The maintenance of diploid or polyploid states in certain bacterial species, such as Lactococcus lactis, may confer some evolutionary advantages, though the specific benefits are not yet fully elucidated.
Implications and Future Directions
The understanding of bacterial ploidy has important implications for various fields, including:
Microbial Ecology: The influence of ploidy on bacterial community composition suggests that this factor should be considered when studying the dynamics and interactions within complex microbial ecosystems.
Biotechnology and Industrial Applications: The ploidy state of bacteria used in industrial processes, such as fermentation or bioremediation, may impact their performance and productivity, warranting further investigation.
Evolutionary Biology: The existence of diploid and polyploid bacteria raises questions about the evolutionary mechanisms and selective pressures that have led to the maintenance of these ploidy states in certain species.
As our understanding of bacterial ploidy continues to evolve, further research is needed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms, the ecological and functional implications, and the potential applications of this knowledge in various scientific and industrial domains.
References:
Gao, B., & Gupta, R. S. (2012). Phylogenetic framework and molecular signatures for the main clades of the phylum Actinobacteria. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 76(1), 66-112.
Klappenbach, J. A., Dunbar, J. M., & Schmidt, T. M. (2000). rRNA operon copy number reflects ecological strategies of bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 66(4), 1328-1333.
Sánchez-Romero, M. A., & Casadesús, J. (2020). The bacterial epigenome. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 18(1), 7-20.
Sørensen, S. J., Bailey, M., Hansen, L. H., Kroer, N., & Wuertz, S. (2005). Studying plasmid horizontal transfer in situ: a critical review. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 3(9), 700-710.
Yoon, S. H., Ha, S. M., Kwon, S., Lim, J., Kim, Y., Seo, H., & Chun, J. (2017). Introducing EzBioCloud: a taxonomically united database of 16S rRNA gene sequences and whole-genome assemblies. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 67(5), 1613-1617.
Bacteria are a fundamental component of the biotic world, playing crucial roles in various ecosystems and processes. As living organisms, bacteria are classified as biotic factors, interacting with and affecting other living organisms and their environment. This blog post will delve into the details of why bacteria are considered biotic factors, exploring the scientific evidence and quantifiable data that support this classification.
Understanding Biotic and Abiotic Factors
Biotic factors refer to the living components of an ecosystem, including plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms like bacteria. These living entities interact with each other and their physical environment, shaping the overall dynamics of the ecosystem. In contrast, abiotic factors are the non-living components of an ecosystem, such as air, water, soil, and sunlight, which provide the necessary resources and conditions for the biotic factors to thrive.
Bacteria as Biotic Factors
Bacteria are undoubtedly biotic factors, as they are living organisms that play crucial roles in various ecosystems and processes. Here’s a closer look at the evidence supporting this classification:
Taxonomic Classification
Bacteria are classified as prokaryotes, a domain of single-celled microorganisms that lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. They are considered the most abundant and diverse group of living organisms on Earth, with an estimated 40 million bacterial species. This taxonomic classification firmly places bacteria within the biotic realm.
Metabolic Activities
Bacteria are capable of a wide range of metabolic activities, including photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, and heterotrophy. These metabolic processes allow bacteria to interact with and influence their surrounding environment, making them integral components of the biotic community.
Ecological Roles
Bacteria play essential roles in various ecological processes, such as nutrient cycling, decomposition, and symbiotic relationships with other organisms. For example, bacteria in the soil are responsible for the breakdown of organic matter, releasing nutrients that are then available for plant uptake. Additionally, bacteria can form beneficial relationships with plants, providing them with essential nutrients or protecting them from pathogens.
Quantifiable Data
Numerous studies have used various techniques to quantify and assess the biotic nature of bacteria. One such technique is Automated Ribosomal Intergenic Spacer Analysis (ARISA), which has been employed to measure bacterial taxon richness and diversity in different environments.
A study published in the FEMS Microbiology Ecology journal used ARISA to investigate bacterial communities in a cold desert system. The researchers found that bacterial richness was significantly associated with environmental gradients and physicochemical variables, such as conductivity, which is a proxy for salinity. This suggests that abiotic factors, like salinity, play a crucial role in shaping the diversity and community structure of bacteria, further reinforcing their classification as biotic factors.
Interactions with Other Biotic Factors
Bacteria interact with other biotic factors, such as plants, animals, and other microorganisms, in various ways. For example, bacteria can form symbiotic relationships with plants, providing them with essential nutrients or protecting them from pathogens. Conversely, some bacteria can be pathogenic, causing diseases in plants and animals.
These interactions between bacteria and other living organisms demonstrate the biotic nature of bacteria and their integral role in the overall functioning of ecosystems.
Challenges in Quantifying Biotic Factors
Measuring and quantifying biotic factors, including bacteria, can be challenging due to the inherent complexity and dynamic nature of living organisms. However, advancements in scientific techniques, such as ARISA, have provided valuable tools for assessing bacterial diversity and community structure.
By using these techniques, researchers can gain insights into the role of bacteria in different ecosystems and how they respond to various environmental factors. This information can be crucial for understanding the overall functioning of an ecosystem and the complex interactions between biotic and abiotic components.
Conclusion
In conclusion, bacteria are undoubtedly biotic factors, as they are living organisms that interact with and affect other living organisms and their environment. The scientific evidence, including taxonomic classification, metabolic activities, ecological roles, and quantifiable data, all support the classification of bacteria as biotic factors.
While quantifying biotic factors can be challenging, advancements in scientific techniques, such as ARISA, have provided valuable tools for assessing bacterial diversity and community structure. By understanding the biotic nature of bacteria and their interactions with other living organisms, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the complex and dynamic nature of ecosystems.
It is a group of bacteria which is aerobic in nature. It can metabolize the oxidation of ferrous ions by utilizing. Iron bacteria examples are tiny living organisms which can feed on small amounts of iron.
These organisms can feed on small amount of iron in water. It also can metabolize the oxidation of manganous ions with iron ions by utilizing. The iron bacteria examples are 2 types- 1. Iron oxidizing bacteria and 2. Iron reducing bacteria. In water which contains iron in different concentrations they grow and reproduce.
It is a kind of Proteobacteria. It is Rod shaped Gram negative bacterium that uses the sulfur for the primary source of energy. It is previously known as Thiobacillus thiooxidans. It is reclassified into the newly formed genus which is Acidithiobacillus. It is under the phylum Pseudomonadota. These colorless bacterium does not accumulate the sulfur ions either in or outside the cells.
The cells of the bacterium are very small in size. Its average size is around 0.5 mm and 1 mm in diameter. These are very widespread, mesophilic and of course obligately aerobic. It is extremely acidophilic and chemolithoautotrophic. It is a gammaproteobacterium. It is found usually in soil, pipes (mainly of drain or gutter) and in caves (rocky and soil both) etc places.
This iron bacteria examples are used in mining sectors which is known as bioleaching. Here metals are extracted from their main part though the function of the microbes. It also capable in the anaerobic growth. It is an effective microbial mitigative of pyrite. It is caused by the adsorption of the microbial colloids. It is not by the oxidation effect.
Acidithiobacill ferrooxidans
It is the most widely studied prokaryotes which is of all extremely acidophilic. Many kinds of natural low pH circumstances in a variety of geoclimatic environments. In anthropogenic (mostly own impacted) environments it has been more widely located. It is commonly found in acid mines’ drainages and mine tailings.
The iron bacteria examples are the major participant in consortia of micro organisms which is hugely used for the bioleaching or biomining (industrial recovery of copper mainly). It is a kind of chemolithoautrophic and a gamma proteobacterium which is used for energy from the oxidation of iron and sulfur containing minerals.it is used for growth.
The loss of molecules caused and done by many reactions like iron and decreased sulfur polyatomic oxygen ions, metal sulfides and elementary sulfur that results in the total of ferric sulfate and sulfuric acid. Here the solubilization of metals and other compounds is the final production. It is found in optimally 30o C and with pH 1 or 2 in coal deposits. It is an effective microbial mitigative of pyrite.
Prior to 2000 it belonged to the genus Thiobacillus. It is also reclassified with some other bacterial species into 1 of those 3 genera that is specifically categorize sulfur oxidizing acidophiles. Caldus is the species name which means warm or hot in Latin. It signified that the species loves the warm environment.
It is a rod (bacillus like) shaped Gram negative bacterium that usually contains 2 in numbers maximum times. During the breakdown of silfide minerals it is commonly used microbes for biomining. Acidithiobacillus came from the Latin word acidus. It means this genus loves a sour or acidic environment. It is a gammaproteobacteria from a class of proteobacteria.
The iron bacteria examples possess motility through a single polar flagellum which is located in its outer cell. Its length is about 1 to 2 mm. It shows vary in size and strains which is BC13. It has a diameter around 0.7 to 1.2 mm. Another strain KU is little longer with a length of diameter of roughly 0.8 to 1.8 mm.
Acidithiobacill albertensis
It is a mesophilic Gram negative bacterium which has a strain of BY-05 which is isolated from an acid mine. It was the during the drainage of copper in Baiyin area Gansu Privince in China. It is one of the recently found and discovered iron bacteria examples. The research is going on it.
Sphaerotilus natans
It is a kind of aquatic periphyton organism which is associated with polluted water. The iron bacteria examples usually form “sewage fungus” which is the colonies of these bacteria. Later it is also identified as a tightly sheathed filamentous bacterium.
It accumulates the slime and aid secondary organism to grow. These sheathed bacteria are a group of microorganisms which is widely found in slow running water and many species attached to submerged surfaces of nature.
These kind of iron bacteria examples are found in fresh water and wetlands in only low concentrations of living organic matter which should be iron rich.
It is a gram negative soil bacteria. Its l2gfp strain is used in bioaugmentation trials. It is done for treating the byproduct 3-chloroaniline for industry purpose. Microbial Mammoth-P contains this bacteria as a component and it claims that enhancing bioavailable phosphorus to reproduce plants and increase stem strength in these plants.
The genus prefers the mildly acidic to neutral environment. It accumulates abundant Fe hydroxide precipitates on their filaments or the stalking structures that can age more crystalline minerals. These iron bacteria examples are the oxidizing Mn after Fe.
It is a gram negative, chemolithotrophic, neutrophilic bacterium which can oxidize the ferrous to ferric iron. It is one of the small number of members belonging the class Zetaproteobacteria from the Proteobacteria phylum.
The iron bacteria examples found at the bottom of deep-sea environments like in any materialistic substances. It produces stalks of solid iron oxyhydroxides that makes the final iron mats. Genes have been proposed to catalyze Fe to those involved in metal redox pathways.
Sideroxydans spp.
The iron bacteria examples are usually less known and less researched topics. Scientists are developing the theories against all these matters. This is also a gram negative bacteria. Many species are there under the genus Sideroxydans. It is a kind of relative of Gallionella ferruginea as the similarity of their features.
Ferritrophicum radicicola
The iron bacteria examples are b-proteobacteria. It is isolated from the rhizosphere of Funcus effusus growing along in an acid mine drainage creek in Virginia in soil with a pH of 4.
Crenothrix spp.
The iron bacteria examples have many species under the genus Crenothrix. These are usually less known and less researched topics. Scientists are developing the theories against all these matters.
Iron oxidizing bacteria examples
These iron bacteria examples lost the ions of molecules and changed the ferrous ions to ferric state to gain the energy. The deposited ferric oxide on carbon steel surfaces of pipelines and promote the tuber and circle like formation. These bacteria are not harmful for nature or human and found in streams, ruts etc.
Mostly found in streams or seeps by the underground water which is rich in iron. It generates electrons which finally destinated to the terminal electron acceptor. It went through the electron transport pathway. With the help of ATP synthase enzymes this generates all the energy.
Iron-reducing bacteria examples
The iron bacteria examples are the materials which dissolved in water and often this underlying causes an iron oxidizing bacteria population. Underground water may be naturally de-oxygenated by the decaying of vegetation in swamps and the useful minerals deposit of bog iron. Maybe it has formed where underground water has historically emerged. It is also been exposed to the atmospheric oxygen. They actually reduce ferric ions to ferrous ions under anaerobic conditions.
Intracellular bacteria are a diverse group of microorganisms that have the unique ability to invade and survive within the cells of their host organisms. These bacteria have evolved complex mechanisms to manipulate host cell processes and evade the immune system, allowing them to establish long-term infections. Examples of intracellular bacteria include Chlamydia trachomatis, which causes sexually transmitted infections and eye infections, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis. Other notable examples include Rickettsia rickettsii, the bacterium responsible for Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and Salmonella enterica, which causes typhoid fever and food poisoning. Understanding the strategies employed by intracellular bacteria is crucial for developing effective treatments and preventive measures against these pathogens.
Intracellular Bacterial Infections Examples
Intracellular bacterial infections occur when bacteria invade and replicate within host cells, evading the immune response and causing various diseases. Let’s explore some examples of intracellular bacterial pathogens and the diseases they cause.
Listeria monocytogenes is a gram-positive bacterium that can cause a serious infection called listeriosis. This bacterium has a unique mechanism of infection, allowing it to enter and survive within host cells. L. monocytogenes can invade various cell types, including epithelial cells and macrophages.
Once inside the host cell, L. monocytogenes uses a specialized protein called internalin to bind to host cell receptors, facilitating its entry. It then escapes from the phagosome into the cytoplasm, where it can replicate and spread to neighboring cells. This ability to escape from the phagosome is crucial for its intracellular survival and pathogenesis.
Listeriosis can lead to flu-like symptoms, such as fever, muscle aches, and gastrointestinal issues. In severe cases, it can cause meningitis, sepsis, and even death, particularly in immunocompromised individuals and pregnant women.
Rickettsia rickettsii is an obligate intracellular bacterium that causes Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF), a potentially life-threatening disease. This bacterium is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected ticks.
Once inside the human body, R. rickettsii targets endothelial cells, which line the blood vessels. It enters these cells and replicates within them, leading to damage to the blood vessels and other organs.
RMSF is characterized by symptoms such as high fever, headache, rash, and muscle pain. If left untreated, it can result in severe complications, including organ failure and death.
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is a gram-negative bacterium that causes a gastrointestinal infection called yersiniosis. This bacterium can invade and replicate within various cell types, including epithelial cells and macrophages.
Y. pseudotuberculosis enters host cells through a process called phagocytosis, where it is engulfed by the cell. Once inside, it uses various virulence factors to avoid destruction by the host cell’s immune response.
Yersiniosis typically presents with symptoms such as fever, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. In some cases, it can lead to complications like mesenteric lymphadenitis, which causes inflammation of the lymph nodes in the abdomen.
Shigella flexneri
Shigella flexneri is a gram-negative bacterium that causes shigellosis, a highly contagious intestinal infection. This bacterium primarily targets the cells lining the colon and rectum.
Upon ingestion, S. flexneri invades the epithelial cells of the intestinal lining. It uses a type III secretion system to inject proteins into the host cell, promoting its uptake and replication within the cell.
Shigellosis is characterized by symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and fever. In severe cases, it can lead to complications like dehydration and bloody diarrhea.
Salmonella typhi
Salmonella typhi is a gram-negative bacterium that causes typhoid fever, a systemic infection affecting various organs. This bacterium is primarily transmitted through contaminated food and water.
S. typhi targets cells in the intestinal lining, where it invades and replicates. It can then spread to other organs, such as the liver and spleen, through the bloodstream.
Typhoid fever is characterized by symptoms such as high fever, headache, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Without proper treatment, it can lead to severe complications, including intestinal perforation and sepsis.
Salmonella typhimurium
Salmonella typhimurium is another gram-negative bacterium belonging to the Salmonella genus. It causes salmonellosis, a common foodborne illness.
Upon ingestion, S. typhimurium invades the epithelial cells of the intestinal lining. It can also survive and replicate within macrophages, allowing it to evade the immune response.
Salmonellosis typically presents with symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and fever. In most cases, the infection resolves on its own without complications. However, severe cases may require medical intervention.
Bartonella species are gram-negative bacteria that can cause various diseases collectively known as bartonellosis. These bacteria can infect a wide range of cell types, including endothelial cells and red blood cells.
Bartonella species are primarily transmitted through arthropod vectors, such as fleas and ticks. Once inside the host, they invade and replicate within host cells, leading to tissue damage and inflammation.
Bartonellosis can manifest in different forms, depending on the species involved. Some examples include cat scratch disease, trench fever, and Carrion’s disease.
Salmonella enterica
Salmonella enterica is a species of gram-negative bacteria that encompasses numerous serotypes. It can cause various diseases, including gastroenteritis and typhoid fever.
Salmonella enterica invades the cells lining the intestines, where it can replicate and cause inflammation. It can also survive and replicate within macrophages, allowing it to disseminate throughout the body.
Gastroenteritis caused by Salmonella enterica typically presents with symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever. Typhoid fever, on the other hand, is characterized by systemic symptoms and can be life-threatening if left untreated.
In conclusion, intracellular bacterial infections can result in a range of diseases, depending on the bacteria involved and the host cells they target. Understanding the mechanisms of infection and the diseases caused by these intracellular bacteria is crucial for effective diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.
Chlamydia trachomatis
Chlamydia trachomatis is a type of intracellular bacteria that is responsible for causing various diseases in humans. Let’s take a closer look at this bacterium and its mechanism of infection, as well as the diseases it can cause.
Mechanism of Infection
Chlamydia trachomatis has a unique mechanism of infection that allows it to invade and survive within host cells. This bacterium primarily targets epithelial cells, which are found in the lining of various organs, such as the reproductive tract and the eyes.
The infection begins when Chlamydia trachomatis attaches itself to the surface of host cells. It then uses specialized proteins to enter the cells, bypassing the usual immune response. Once inside, the bacterium forms a specialized compartment called an inclusion, which provides a protected environment for its replication.
Chlamydia trachomatis has evolved sophisticated strategies to manipulate host cell processes. It can hijack the host cell’s machinery to obtain nutrients and replicate, while also evading detection by the immune system. This allows the bacterium to establish a chronic infection, leading to long-term health complications if left untreated.
Disease caused: Chlamydia
Chlamydia trachomatis is the causative agent of the sexually transmitted infection known as Chlamydia. This disease is one of the most common bacterial infections worldwide, affecting millions of people each year.
Chlamydia can manifest in different forms depending on the site of infection. In women, it often leads to cervicitis (inflammation of the cervix), which can progress to pelvic inflammatory disease if left untreated. This can result in chronic pelvic pain, infertility, and an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy.
In men, Chlamydia can cause urethritis (inflammation of the urethra), leading to painful urination and discharge from the penis. If the infection spreads to the epididymis, it can result in epididymitis, which can cause testicular pain and swelling.
It’s important to note that Chlamydia can also be transmitted from mother to child during childbirth, leading to eye infections (conjunctivitis) or pneumonia in newborns.
To diagnose Chlamydia, healthcare providers typically perform laboratory tests on samples collected from the infected site, such as urine or swabs. Fortunately, Chlamydia can be effectively treated with antibiotics, but early detection and treatment are crucial to prevent complications.
In conclusion, Chlamydia trachomatis is an intracellular bacterium that causes the sexually transmitted infection known as Chlamydia. Its unique mechanism of infection allows it to invade and survive within host cells, leading to various health complications if left untreated. Regular testing and prompt treatment are essential to prevent the spread of this common bacterial infection.
Intracellular Pathogens Examples
Intracellular pathogens are a fascinating group of microorganisms that have the ability to invade and survive within the cells of their host organisms. These pathogens have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to manipulate host cell processes and evade the immune system. In this section, we will explore some examples of intracellular pathogens and their impact on human health.
Definition of Intracellular Pathogens
Intracellular pathogens are microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses, that are capable of invading and replicating within the cells of their host organisms. Unlike extracellular pathogens that primarily reside outside the host cells, intracellular pathogens have developed unique strategies to enter host cells, survive, and exploit the cellular machinery for their own replication and survival.
Importance of Studying Intracellular Pathogens
Studying intracellular pathogens is crucial for understanding the complex interactions between pathogens and host cells. By unraveling the mechanisms employed by these pathogens, scientists can gain insights into the pathogenesis of infectious diseases and develop strategies to combat them. Additionally, intracellular pathogens often cause chronic infections that are difficult to treat, making it imperative to study their biology and develop effective therapeutic interventions.
Examples of Intracellular Pathogens
Chlamydia: Chlamydia trachomatis is a common sexually transmitted bacterium that infects the epithelial cells of the reproductive tract. It can cause various diseases, including genital infections, pelvic inflammatory disease, and infertility. Chlamydia has evolved mechanisms to manipulate host cell processes, such as inhibiting apoptosis and inducing the formation of a protective membrane-bound compartment called an inclusion.
Legionella: Legionella pneumophila is the causative agent of Legionnaires’ disease, a severe form of pneumonia. This bacterium can invade and replicate within alveolar macrophages, a type of immune cell found in the lungs. Legionella hijacks host cell processes to create a specialized compartment called a Legionella-containing vacuole, where it can replicate and evade immune detection.
Mycobacterium: Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis (TB), a global health threat. It primarily infects lung macrophages, where it can persist for years, causing chronic lung inflammation. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has evolved various strategies to survive within host cells, including inhibiting phagosome maturation and inducing autophagy.
Salmonella: Salmonella enterica is a bacterium commonly associated with foodborne illnesses. It can invade epithelial cells lining the intestines and survive within macrophages. Salmonella secretes effector proteins that manipulate host cell processes, allowing it to establish a replicative niche called a Salmonella-containing vacuole.
Brucella: Brucella species are intracellular bacteria that cause brucellosis, a zoonotic disease transmitted from animals to humans. These bacteria can invade and survive within various cell types, including macrophages and dendritic cells. Brucella manipulates host cell processes to create a replicative niche called a Brucella-containing vacuole.
Coxiella: Coxiella burnetii is the causative agent of Q fever, a zoonotic disease that can cause severe pneumonia and flu-like symptoms. Coxiella can infect and replicate within various cell types, including macrophages. It forms a unique parasitophorous vacuole that allows it to replicate and evade host immune responses.
Rickettsia: Rickettsia species are intracellular bacteria that are transmitted to humans through arthropod vectors, such as ticks and fleas. These bacteria can invade and replicate within endothelial cells, causing diseases like Rocky Mountain spotted fever and typhus. Rickettsia manipulates host cell processes to create a specialized compartment called an inclusion, where it can replicate and spread to other cells.
Listeria: Listeria monocytogenes is a bacterium that can cause listeriosis, a foodborne illness with severe consequences, especially in immunocompromised individuals and pregnant women. Listeria can invade and replicate within various cell types, including macrophages and epithelial cells. It uses a unique mechanism called actin-based motility to move within host cells and spread to neighboring cells.
Francisella: Francisella tularensis is the bacterium responsible for tularemia, a disease that can be transmitted through contact with infected animals or contaminated water. Francisella can infect and replicate within various cell types, including macrophages. It manipulates host cell processes to create a replicative niche called a Francisella-containing phagosome.
These examples highlight the diverse strategies employed by intracellular pathogens to survive and replicate within host cells. Understanding the biology of these pathogens is crucial for developing effective treatments and preventive measures against bacterial infections.
Intracellular Enzymes
Intracellular enzymes play a crucial role in various cellular processes. These enzymes are found within the cells and are responsible for catalyzing biochemical reactions necessary for the cell’s survival and functioning. Let’s explore the definition of intracellular enzymes and delve into their functions and characteristics.
Definition of Intracellular Enzymes
Intracellular enzymes are a diverse group of proteins that are synthesized and reside within the cells. These enzymes are involved in numerous metabolic pathways and are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis. They catalyze chemical reactions by speeding up the conversion of substrates into products, thereby facilitating various cellular processes.
Functions and Characteristics of Intracellular Enzymes
Metabolism: Intracellular enzymes play a vital role in cellular metabolism. They participate in the breakdown of complex molecules, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, into simpler forms that can be utilized by the cell. Additionally, they are involved in the synthesis of macromolecules necessary for cell growth and repair.
Energy Production: Intracellular enzymes are crucial for energy production within the cell. They are involved in cellular respiration, a process that converts glucose and oxygen into energy-rich molecules called ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP serves as the primary energy source for various cellular activities.
Signal Transduction: Intracellular enzymes are involved in signal transduction pathways, which allow cells to respond to external stimuli. They help relay signals from the cell surface to the nucleus, triggering specific cellular responses. Examples of intracellular enzymes involved in signal transduction include protein kinases and phosphatases.
DNA Replication and Repair: Intracellular enzymes are essential for DNA replication and repair. They ensure the accurate duplication of the genetic material during cell division and help fix any errors or damage in the DNA sequence. Enzymes such as DNA polymerases and DNA ligases are involved in these processes.
Detoxification: Intracellular enzymes also play a role in detoxification processes within the cell. They help convert harmful substances, such as drugs and toxins, into less toxic or more easily excretable forms. For example, the liver contains intracellular enzymes called cytochrome P450 enzymes that aid in drug metabolism.
Protection against Oxidative Stress: Intracellular enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, protect cells against oxidative stress caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS). These enzymes help neutralize ROS and prevent damage to cellular components, including DNA, proteins, and lipids.
In conclusion, intracellular enzymes are essential for the proper functioning and survival of cells. They are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including metabolism, energy production, signal transduction, DNA replication and repair, detoxification, and protection against oxidative stress. Understanding the functions and characteristics of intracellular enzymes is crucial for unraveling the complexities of cellular biology and developing targeted therapies for various diseases.
Extracellular Bacteria
Extracellular bacteria are a diverse group of microorganisms that primarily reside outside of host cells. Unlike intracellular bacteria, which invade and replicate within host cells, extracellular bacteria thrive in the extracellular environment, such as on the surfaces of tissues or in bodily fluids. Let’s explore the definition of extracellular bacteria and the key differences between intracellular and extracellular bacteria.
Definition of Extracellular Bacteria
Extracellular bacteria are microorganisms that do not invade host cells and instead reside in the extracellular spaces of the body. These bacteria can be found on various surfaces, including the skin, mucous membranes, and the lining of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. They can also be present in bodily fluids like blood, urine, and saliva.
Unlike intracellular bacteria, which have developed mechanisms to invade and survive within host cells, extracellular bacteria rely on different strategies to establish and maintain infections. They typically produce virulence factors, such as toxins or enzymes, which help them colonize and cause damage to host tissues.
Differences between Intracellular and Extracellular Bacteria
Intracellular and extracellular bacteria differ in their interactions with host cells and their ability to cause infections. Here are some key differences between these two types of bacteria:
Location: Intracellular bacteria reside within host cells, while extracellular bacteria primarily inhabit the extracellular spaces.
Invasion: Intracellular bacteria have evolved mechanisms to invade host cells, allowing them to hide from the immune system and access nutrients. In contrast, extracellular bacteria do not invade host cells but instead interact with them from the outside.
Replication: Intracellular bacteria replicate within host cells, using the host‘s cellular machinery to produce more bacteria. Extracellular bacteria, on the other hand, replicate outside of host cells, often forming biofilms or colonies on surfaces.
Immune response: Intracellular bacteria can evade or manipulate the immune response by residing within host cells, making it challenging for the immune system to detect and eliminate them. Extracellular bacteria, being outside of host cells, are more susceptible to immune defenses such as antibodies and phagocytosis.
Treatment: Intracellular bacterial infections often require specific antibiotics that can penetrate host cells to reach the bacteria. Extracellular bacterial infections can be treated with a broader range of antibiotics that target the bacteria in the extracellular environment.
Understanding the differences between intracellular and extracellular bacteria is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat bacterial infections. By targeting the unique characteristics of each type of bacteria, researchers and healthcare professionals can develop tailored approaches to combat bacterial pathogens and protect human health.
In the next section, we will explore some examples of intracellular bacteria and their interactions with host cells.
How Intracellular Pathogens Enter Cells
Intracellular pathogens are bacteria that have evolved unique mechanisms to enter host cells. By gaining access to the interior of host cells, these bacteria can establish infections and evade the immune system. Understanding the mechanisms by which intracellular pathogens enter cells is crucial for developing effective treatments and preventive measures against bacterial infections.
Mechanisms of Entry for Intracellular Pathogens
Intracellular pathogens have developed various strategies to breach the defenses of host cells and gain entry. Let’s take a closer look at some of these mechanisms:
Phagocytosis: Phagocytosis is a process by which host cells engulf and internalize foreign particles, including bacteria. Some intracellular pathogens, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, exploit phagocytosis to gain entry into host cells. Once inside, these bacteria can survive and replicate within specialized compartments called phagosomes.
Endocytosis: Endocytosis is another mechanism utilized by intracellular pathogens to enter host cells. Bacteria like Chlamydia trachomatis and Legionella pneumophila can hijack the endocytic pathway of host cells to gain entry. They manipulate the host cell machinery to create a favorable environment for their survival and replication.
Direct injection: Certain bacteria, such as Salmonella enterica and Shigella flexneri, have evolved the ability to directly inject their genetic material into host cells. They use specialized secretion systems to deliver virulence factors into the host cell, enabling them to manipulate cellular processes and establish infection.
Cellular invasion: Some intracellular pathogens, like Brucella spp. and Coxiella burnetii, can invade host cells by actively penetrating the cell membrane. These bacteria possess surface proteins that interact with host cell receptors, triggering a cascade of events that lead to their internalization.
Examples of Entry Mechanisms
Let’s explore some examples of how specific intracellular pathogens enter host cells:
Chlamydia: Chlamydia trachomatis, the bacterium responsible for sexually transmitted infections and ocular infections, enters host cells through a process called “inclusion formation.” It induces its own uptake by host cells and establishes a protective niche called an inclusion, where it can replicate and evade the immune response.
Legionella: Legionella pneumophila, the causative agent of Legionnaires’ disease, enters host cells through a process known as “coiling phagocytosis.” It induces the host cell to engulf it, forming a specialized compartment called a Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV). The bacterium then manipulates the LCV to create an environment favorable for its survival and replication.
Mycobacterium: Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis, primarily infects lung macrophages. It enters these cells through phagocytosis and survives within phagosomes by inhibiting their fusion with lysosomes. This allows the bacterium to evade destruction and establish a chronic infection.
Salmonella: Salmonella enterica, a common cause of foodborne illness, enters host cells through a process called “triggered phagocytosis.” It uses a type III secretion system to inject effector proteins into host cells, inducing membrane ruffling and triggering its own uptake. Once inside, Salmonella can replicate within specialized compartments called Salmonella-containing vacuoles (SCVs).
Understanding the mechanisms by which intracellular pathogens enter host cells is essential for developing targeted therapies and preventive strategies. By disrupting these entry mechanisms, we can potentially limit bacterial infections and improve patient outcomes. Further research in this field will continue to shed light on the intricate interactions between bacterial pathogens and host cells, leading to advancements in the field of bacterial pathogenesis.
Intracellular Membrane
The intracellular membrane plays a crucial role in the survival and replication of various intracellular bacteria within host cells. In this section, we will explore the definition and function of the intracellular membrane, as well as its importance in the context of intracellular bacteria.
Definition and Function of Intracellular Membrane
The intracellular membrane refers to the membrane structures that are present within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. These membranes are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including intracellular transport, compartmentalization, and signaling. One of the key functions of the intracellular membrane is to provide a physical barrier that separates the cytoplasm into distinct compartments, allowing for the organization and regulation of cellular activities.
Within the context of intracellular bacteria, the intracellular membrane plays a critical role in establishing a favorable environment for bacterial survival and replication. When a bacterial pathogen invades a host cell, it often manipulates the host‘s intracellular membrane system to create a specialized compartment known as the bacterial phagosome. This compartment provides a protected niche where the bacteria can evade the host‘s immune response and exploit the host cell’s resources for their own replication.
Importance of Intracellular Membrane in Intracellular Bacteria
The intracellular membrane is of utmost importance for the survival and proliferation of intracellular bacteria. By residing within the host cell’s intracellular membrane, these bacteria can avoid detection and destruction by the host‘s immune system. They can also exploit the host cell’s resources, such as nutrients and energy, to support their own growth and replication.
Several examples of intracellular bacteria illustrate the significance of the intracellular membrane in bacterial pathogenesis. For instance, bacteria like Chlamydia, Legionella, Mycobacterium, Salmonella, Brucella, Coxiella, Rickettsia, Listeria, and Francisella are known to invade host cells and establish intracellular niches within the intracellular membrane system. These bacteria have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to manipulate the host cell’s intracellular membrane, allowing them to create a favorable environment for their survival and replication.
Intracellular bacteria can exploit the intracellular membrane system in various ways. They may induce the formation of specialized membrane structures, such as tubercles or phagosomes, which provide a protected environment for bacterial replication. These bacteria can also manipulate cellular processes, such as autophagy or apoptosis, to their advantage, either by inhibiting these processes or by inducing them in a controlled manner.
In conclusion, the intracellular membrane plays a crucial role in the survival and replication of intracellular bacteria within host cells. By manipulating the host cell’s intracellular membrane system, these bacteria can establish specialized compartments that provide a protected niche for their survival and replication. Understanding the interactions between intracellular bacteria and the intracellular membrane is essential for unraveling the mechanisms of bacterial pathogenesis and developing effective strategies to combat bacterial infections.
What is the Relationship Between Intracellular Enzymes and Intracellular Bacteria?
Intracellular enzymes play a vital role in the relationship between intracellular bacteria and a host cell. Pathogenic bacteria often produce enzymes to invade the host’s cells, promoting their survival and replication. Examples of such intracellular enzyme examples include proteases, lipases, and nucleases. By manipulating cellular processes, these enzymes assist bacteria in evading the host’s immune responses and utilizing the host’s resources for their own benefit. Harnessing their enzymatic capabilities, intracellular bacteria can establish a stable niche within the host cell, leading to various infectious diseases.
Difference Between Intracellular and Extracellular Enzymes
Enzymes play a crucial role in various biological processes, including metabolism, digestion, and cellular signaling. These catalysts are classified based on their location within the cell: intracellular or extracellular enzymes. Let’s explore the characteristics and distinctions between these two types of enzymes.
Definition and Characteristics of Intracellular Enzymes
Intracellular enzymes are enzymes that function inside the cell. They are synthesized within the cell and perform essential biochemical reactions necessary for cellular processes. These enzymes are typically found in the cytoplasm, organelles, or other cellular compartments.
One key characteristic of intracellular enzymes is their specificity. Each enzyme is designed to catalyze a particular reaction, ensuring that the cell’s metabolic pathways proceed efficiently. For example, enzymes like DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase are responsible for DNA and RNA synthesis, respectively.
Intracellular enzymes are tightly regulated to maintain cellular homeostasis. Their activity is often controlled through feedback mechanisms, where the end product of a metabolic pathway inhibits the enzyme responsible for its synthesis. This regulation ensures that the cell produces only the required amount of a particular molecule.
Definition and Characteristics of Extracellular Enzymes
Extracellular enzymes, on the other hand, are enzymes that are secreted outside the cell. These enzymes are synthesized within the cell and then transported outside to perform their functions. They are commonly found in organisms that need to break down complex molecules in their environment to obtain nutrients.
Extracellular enzymes are often produced by microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, to aid in their survival and growth. For example, bacteria like Bacillus and Clostridium secrete extracellular enzymes that break down complex organic matter into simpler forms that can be absorbed by the bacteria.
Unlike intracellular enzymes, extracellular enzymes are not subject to the same level of regulation within the cell. Their activity is influenced by factors in the extracellular environment, such as temperature and pH. These enzymes are often more versatile in their substrate specificity, allowing them to degrade a wide range of molecules.
Comparison of Intracellular and Extracellular Enzymes
Here’s a comparison table highlighting the key differences between intracellular and extracellular enzymes:
Intracellular Enzymes
Extracellular Enzymes
Function inside the cell
Function outside the cell
Synthesized within the cell
Synthesized within the cell and transported outside
Specific to particular cellular processes
Versatile in substrate specificity
Tightly regulated by feedback mechanisms
Activity influenced by extracellular factors
Found in the cytoplasm, organelles, or cellular compartments
Secreted by microorganisms into the environment
In summary, intracellular enzymes function inside the cell, playing a vital role in cellular processes, while extracellular enzymes are secreted outside the cell to break down complex molecules in the environment. Understanding the distinctions between these two types of enzymes helps us appreciate the diverse strategies employed by organisms to carry out essential biochemical reactions. Conclusion
Intracellular bacteria are a diverse group of microorganisms that have the ability to invade and survive within host cells. They have evolved various strategies to manipulate host cellular processes and evade the immune system, allowing them to establish chronic infections. This interaction between intracellular bacteria and host cells has significant implications for human health, as it can lead to the development of infectious diseases. Some well-known examples of intracellular bacteria include Chlamydia trachomatis, which causes sexually transmitted infections, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, and Salmonella enterica, responsible for causing foodborne illnesses. Understanding the mechanisms employed by these intracellular bacteria can help in the development of effective therapeutic strategies and vaccines to combat these infections. Further research is needed to unravel the complexities of host-pathogen interactions and to explore new targets for intervention in order to mitigate the impact of intracellular bacterial infections on global health.
What are some examples of intracellular bacteria that produce endotoxins?
Examples of intracellular bacteria that produce endotoxins can be found in a variety of organisms. Some of the notable examples include “Examples of Endotoxin Bacteria”. These bacteria have the ability to invade host cells and replicate inside them, while also releasing endotoxins that can cause harm to the host organism. Understanding the specific examples of such bacteria is crucial in studying their impact on both human health and the environment.
Frequently Asked Questions
What are intracellular bacterial infections examples?
Intracellular bacterial infections can occur when bacteria invade and replicate within host cells. Some examples of intracellular bacterial infections include Chlamydia, Legionella, Mycobacterium, Salmonella, Brucella, Coxiella, Rickettsia, Listeria, and Francisella.
What is the difference between intracellular and extracellular bacteria?
Intracellular bacteria are capable of invading and replicating within host cells, while extracellular bacteria remain outside the host cells. Intracellular bacteria require host cells for their survival and replication, whereas extracellular bacteria can survive and replicate in the extracellular environment.
How do intracellular pathogens enter the cells?
Intracellular pathogens can enter host cells through various mechanisms, including direct entry, phagocytosis, or endocytosis. Some intracellular pathogens have evolved specific mechanisms to manipulate host cell processes and gain entry into the cells.
What is the immune response to intracellular bacteria?
The immune response to intracellular bacteria involves the recognition of bacterial components by the host immune system. This recognition triggers an immune response, including the activation of immune cells, production of cytokines, and the recruitment of other immune cells to the site of infection. The immune response aims to eliminate the intracellular bacteria and prevent their spread.
What is bacterial pathogenesis?
Bacterial pathogenesis refers to the mechanisms by which bacteria cause disease in their hosts. Intracellular bacteria have evolved various strategies to invade host cells, replicate within them, and evade the host immune response. Understanding bacterial pathogenesis is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat bacterial infections.
What are the features of intracellular bacterial survival?
Intracellular bacteria have developed various features to ensure their survival within host cells. These features include the ability to invade host cells, replicate within them, escape from host cell defenses, and manipulate host cell processes to create a favorable intracellular environment for their survival and replication.
How do bacterial pathogens escape from host cells?
Bacterial pathogens can escape from host cells through various mechanisms, including lysis of the host cell, induction of host cell death, or manipulation of host cell processes to facilitate their release. Bacterial escape allows the pathogens to spread and infect other host cells or individuals.
What are some examples of obligate intracellular bacteria?
Obligate intracellular bacteria are bacteria that can only survive and replicate within host cells. Some examples of obligate intracellular bacteria include Chlamydia, Rickettsia, and Coxiella. These bacteria are dependent on host cells for their essential metabolic and replication processes.
How do intracellular bacteria invade host cells?
Intracellular bacteria can invade host cells through various mechanisms, including the use of specialized surface proteins to bind to host cell receptors, induction of host cell membrane rearrangements, or manipulation of host cell signaling pathways. These mechanisms allow the bacteria to enter the host cells and establish an intracellular niche for their survival and replication.
How do intracellular bacteria replicate within host cells?
Intracellular bacteria replicate within host cells by utilizing host cell resources and manipulating host cell processes. They can hijack host cell machinery to synthesize their own proteins, replicate their DNA, and generate energy for their metabolic needs. This allows the bacteria to multiply and establish a productive infection within the host cells.
A kind of plants which are nonvascular i.e., without a vascular system which should be made up with xylem and phloem. Some nonvascular plants examples are liverworts etc.
These plants are a type of plants which have no vascular system of water transport through xylem and phloem. Instead of this vascular function they may carry simple tissues that can have specialized functions for internal transport of water system. Nonvascular plants examples include plants like mosses, hornworts etc.
They are small, flowerless, nonvascular plants. This is under the taxonomic division of Bryophyta sensu stricto. It is also referred as the parent group of bryophytes. They form green thicket and mat like dense carpet often in damp or shady places.
Under this category the nonvascular seedless plants examples are mainly mosses like:
True mosses-
Largest class of mosses, 95% of all the moss species. Consists about 11500 species, common in the whole world.
Sphagnales-
An order of mosses with 4 living genera. In which Sphagnum is the largest of all the species discovered.
Polytrichales-
Common family in the mosses. It is different because of the thick central stem and a rhizome than other mosses. Leaves with a midrib and consists lamellae on the upper side of the plant.
Andreaeopsida-
Basal group of mosses. It is usually found in rock surface and grow there. Able to cling to the rocky surface with their multicellular rhizoids. It penetrates into the rock cracks and anchor the plant.
Hepaticopsida-
Plant body is foliose or thalloid. It is lobed, prostate, dichotomously branched. There are green pigments (chloroplasts) in their photosynthetic cells. Capsules indicate the sporophytes. Scales and rhizoids are present. They use vegetative reproduction of the older portion of their body part.
Oedipodiopsida-
Class of plants which have 2 species, 1 genus and 1 family.
Musciphyton-
This is a recent plant. Not many information is available for this. But alleged spogonia of this plant are appeared of the Carex.
Sheet Moss-
A hypum moss which is a species of carpet moss. According to the growth pattern it named so. It grows like a carpet mat on rock or on soil.
Cushion Moss–
It is also named as pincushion or leucobryum moss. It is mainly distributed in East North part of America and Europe.
Haircap Moss-
It is also known as polytricum commune. Found in regions with high air humidity and rainfall. It is tall than other mosses. The range is 30 cm to 70 cm(rarely). Shorter lengths are 5 to 10 cm.
Rockcap Moss-
It is also same as the haircap moss and usually grows on the rocky surface.
Marchantiophyta (Liverworts)–
A division of nonvascular plants which is commonly known as hepatics or liverworts. Like other mosses and hornworts, it also has a life cycle in which gametophyte is dominant. Only a single set of genetic information is carried by the plant cells.
This class is the common class of liverworts. Found widely in all over the world.
Jungermanniopsida-
Largest among all the three classes under the main classification.
Jungermanniales-
Largest order among all the liverworts. Distinctive because of the leaf like flaps on each side of the stem.
Haplomitriopsida-
Newly recognized class of liverworts. 15 species in 3 genera. Basal sister group which is placed monophyletic group. This is basis on recent analysis of cladistics of nuclear, plastid gene sequence and mitochondrial facts.
Anthocerotophyta (Hornworts)-
The common name is for the horn like long and elongated structure. The name of that part is known as sporophyte. The flat green plant body of hornwort is the gametophyte part of the whole plant.
Region genus species found in like China Australia etc. Sister genus to sphaerosporoceros. Crandall and Stotler in 2005 found its 3 new genera which is Dendroceros, Megaceros and Phaeoceros.
Anthocerotaceae-
Fossils of Miocene spores found in Europe and as assigned such a late date for oldest fossils of hornworts. Distributed globally.
Dendroceros-
In this type of division rhizoids are few or rare. Epidermal cells are not distinctive. Occurrence of endospory in this type.
Notothyladaceae-
This is a genus found globally but usually it is overlooked. It is the smallest of all the species found.
Anthocerotales–
This is the group of constituting the division of the common Leiosporoceros.
Anthoceros agrestis-
It is with a capsule like structure in an area that occurs to be muddy and dumpy. This is aquatic and grows in wet habitat.
Notothylas-
The uncertainness of the fossil hornworts the only living taxa is this. It is colored with green and yellow gametophyte thallus. Usually, smaller.
A common moss, widely distributed, grows in every continent including Antarctica. An evergreen and perennial species.
Java Moss-
It is also known as Singapore moss. It is native to Asia mainly and is common in aquarium trade.
Bank haircap-
Cosmopolitan distributed found mostly in temperate places of latitudes in the North Hemisphere and it is specially widely dominant in Europe and North America.
Physcomitrella patens–
It is a spreading earth moss. A model organism of plant evolution and development and physiology.
Funaria hygrometrica-
A bonfire moss or known as common cord moss. It is a type of water moss and grows also in shady, moist, soil. It is also found in dump walls and cervices of rocks. It can be found in places where fire took place. The body of the plant is soft green and upright.
Sphagnum palustre–
It is a kind of bog moss which is burnt leaved. It can soak water at about 30-fold amount of its own dry weight. It is because of its elastic spiral fibers.
Mountain Fern Moss-
Commonly known as glittering wood moss or stairstep moss or splendid feather moss. It is a perennial clonal moss and it is widely spread in Northern Hemisphere of boreal forests.
Floating Crystalwort-
It is an aquatic plant which can float and popular among aquarists for young as retreat. It is used in live bearing tanks commonly. Found in floating ponds, often forms thick mats up and down the water surface.
Silvery Bryum-
Also known as silver green bryum and common urban mosses of the cities of outskirts. It is easily recognized for the color.
Smooth and found in the areas where moist is high like moist soils in the fields, bank of streams or rivers. Can also be found under the surface of the rivers.
Frontalis antipyretica–
Known as common water moss and it is a species of submerged water (aquatic) moss. Widely spread in stagnant of flowing freshwater of Europe, Asia, Greenland and Africa.
Taxiphyllum Barbieri–
Commonly known as Bogor moss found in south Asia. Usually used in aquariums. It is mainly attached to roots of tree, rocks. In the wild forest it grows in humid and moist areas.
Schistostega-
Only member of the family which glows in dark places. It is a haplolepideous moss which is also known as globin gold or Dragon’s gold or Luminous moss or Luminescent moss.
Pleurozium schreberi–
It is a kind of red stemmed feather moss or it is also named as Schreber’s big red stem moss. It has a loose growth pattern. Its root name is pleuro means ribs in Latin. It is so may be because of the partition of branch from the part of the stem.
Dicranum scoparium–
A type ofbroom fork moss and it is native to the North Hemisphere of Oceania. Forms tufts or kind of mats on soil (dry to moist) of forest area. Many types of broom moss grow in clumps.
Monosolenium Tenerum-
It is a member of weedy species which is found in East Asia. It is from the genus Monosolenium.
Hypnum cupressiforme–
Cypress leaved plant which is a plait moss and widespread of moss belongings. Found in all over the world except Antarctica. It has wide variety of climate zones of habitat.
Bartramia pomiformis–
It is a common apple moss. It is green or hue in color in typical manner. Though it can be yellow sometimes. Narrow lanceolate to linear lanceolate leaves are present.
Brachypodium sylvaticum–
Also known as apple brome and a perennial grass. It is native to Asia Europe and Africa, mainly North Africa to Eurasia.
Great scented liverwort (Conocephalum conicum)–
The plant body is snake skin like and includes many cryptic species. Conicum refers here as cone shaped archegoniaphore which bears sporangia.
Plagiomnium affine-
A kind of many fruited thyme moss which is found in ancient growth dense forests of North America, Europe and Asia. Little acidic in nature in the micro habitats and grow in moist place (not wet).
Horn calcareous moss-
It is the most elegant than any other moss which is also known as Swan’s neck thyme moss. Light and bright green while growing in spring. Found in dumpy woods where the soil is acidic.
Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus-
A tuff moss which grow in spring in UK and square goose neck moss in USA. In southern hemisphere it is widely spread in Eurasia and North America.
Branchypodium pinnatum-
A heath false brome or tor grass spread in temperate regions of North. Grows in calcareous grassland (70-120 cm) and it’s flowerhead is open with erect spikelet (10-15).
Nonvascular seedless plants examples
Nonvascular seedless plants lack seeds and vascular tissue both. These are the kind of plants like simple, nonflowering, very low growing. They lack conducting channels. Nonvascular plants examples are bryophytes, common liverwort etc. Bryophyta, Marchantiophyta, Anthocerotophyta are the main types of this group.
Mainly 2 distantly related groups are there for the seedless nonvascular plants examples, which is Bryophytes. But now a group of taxonomists there are 3 separate land plant divisions, those are:
These seedless plants also kind of same as normal nonvascular plants as there are not many seed plants in this category. They have no conducting channels for transporting of internal water and nutrient supply. Here photosynthetic gametophyte is the dominant stage of life cycle. The nonvascular plants examples are java mosses, bank haircap and many more.Gametophyte is the dominant stage.
A kind of modified plants arrive from stem tissue but stay and grow under the soil surface. There are types of underground stem plants examples include bulb, corm, rhizome, and tuber. Their function is mainly to store food and nutrients.
Many plants have underground stems which is sometimes mistaken for roots. These stems are modified and they have many functions including food storage like propagation of new clones and perennation. The stems sometimes can be aboveground, aerially and subaerially modified also. There are underground stem plants examples like ginger, potatoes etc.
In seedless vascular plants the specialty is that the dominant phase of lifecycle is sporophyte. Water is required for fertilization. The most favorable atmosphere is moist. The underground stem plants examples are not applicable here.
In late Devonian period plants had developed vascular tissue, well defined leaves and root system. Through the evolution of plants they covered most of the land. In modern days seedless vascular plants include many mosses and ferns like club mosses, horsetails, ferns and whisk ferns. But the underground stem plants are not included in this category.
Club mosses-
The first group of seedless vascular plants is Lycophyta or club mosses. Today’s club mosses are narrow, evergreen plants with a stem and small leaves called microphylls. This consists close to 1000 species like quillworts (Isoetales), club mosses (Lycopodiales) and spike mosses (Selaginellales); none of these is a true moss.
They survived from the Carboniferous period so they are the long lived organisms. They mark a crucial step in transition from aquatic habitat to land habitat.
These are the third group of plants in the Pterophyta. It is classified apart from ferns. It has a single genus, Equisetum. Survivors of large group of these plants are known as Arthrophyta. The plants are usually shown in damp environment and marshes.
Extend species of the horsetails number about 15 across the whole world. They are usually growing in wet atmosphere like bogs. They are arranged in whorls around the stem in joints.
This type is accepted as the most advanced seedless vascular plants. The features are seen mostly in seed plants. Ferns have large leaves and branching root; where whisk fern which is from Psilophytes lack both the roots and the leaves. It is lost may be because of the evolutionary reduction.
There are 20000 species in ferns and grow in shady mossy bogs of forest. They have a relation with underground stem plants examples like rhizomes considered to the botanists. Green ferns absorb light which is helpful for photosynthesis.
Whisk fern are not true but close to the true ferns. Sometime they grow as an epiphyte. Small primitive plants like this perform photosynthesis. They formed before Dinosaurs and still living now in the whole world today.
It is from the large group named tracheophytes which is specialized sum of cells like xylem and phloem that passes water and nutrients. During Carboniferous period swamp forests of club mosses and horsetails and about 30 meters tall species covered all the forests.
Back to the underground stem plants examples there are many types of underground stem plants like
Rhizomes-
These are usually with the without green proper nodes and internodes. They have auxiliary and apical buds which is brownish in colour. Fleshy in structure for the storing of food, contains terminal buds. E.g.- ginger.
Rhizomes grow vertically to the upside but not horizontally. Some examples are Banana and Alocasia indica.
It can be divided into 2 parts. One is in central and pear in shape known as “mother-rhizome” and its branches are known as “fingers” and there is only one main axis. The main part is used for cloning names as “seed rhizome”.
This part creates the main shoot and enlarges to the ultimate. Axillary buds are formed from the lower part of the axis and formed branches known as “primary fingers”. The number varies from two to five.
Here the structure is fleshy and leaves are scale like. The pile of adventitious roots makes the base structure of bulbs. Bulbs can be scaley or clothed. This kind of bulbs have no cover. A sheath of dry and membranous scale leaves coated the clothed bulb. E.g.- onion, garlic etc.
The stem of these plants grows vertically. A flat base with a spherical shape is present here. Proper nodes and internodes are present here. At the base or all over the body the adventitious roots are present. On the sides the auxiliary buds are present. E.g.- Colocasia.
These plants mainly store food in their fleshy part. E.g.- Potato (Solanumtuberosum) is the common tuber we all know largely used as a vegetable. Lower part is penetrated in the earth and the upper part is above the ground. Adventitious branches grow beneath the soil surface. It is covered with ‘eye’ which is like depressions all over the body of potatoes.
Tubers are gaining appreciation for the high potential for culinary materials. Some of edible tubers or stems are tannia or yautia (Xanthosoma sp.), elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus sp.), and swamp taro (Cyrtosperma sp.) etc.
They are rich in nutrition like proteins and minerals like phosphorus and iron and many more. They are full of starch and their leaves and petioles are also consumed as green vegetables.
Some of more underground stem plants examples are, tugui, tam-si (Dioscorea sp.) apali, shallot (Allium cepa) [Aggregatum group], chive, gabi, bisol, Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus) etc.
