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Some bacteria have found the ability to love in the most adverse environments, while some have beneficial effects on natural flora and fauna. They can also cause various diseases that may even be fatal. Here we will look at some of them:
Bacterial classification based on morphology Image: Wikipedia
Halophiles: These bacteria live in extremely salty environments where most other organisms cannot survive.
Acidophiles: These bacteria like in highly acidic environments.
Alkaliphiles: These bacteria on the other hand live in extremely alkaline environments with extremely high pH.
Psychrophile: These bacteria live in cryogenic temperatures below 0 degrees Celcius in places like glaciers and polar snow caps.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil or the root nodules of leguminous and fix atmospheric nitrogen either into the plant root or into the soil directly.
Beneficial bacteria: These bacteria can live in the gut(intestine) of larger animals. They help break down nutrients for better absorption. Some of them also synthesize Vitamins that keep the intestinal flora and fauna(beneficial organisms in the gut) healthy.
Commercially useful bacteria: Some bacteria like Lactobacillus is used commercially and also at home for the preparation of curd and cheese.
Pathogenic bacteria: Not all bacteria are beneficial. We mostly associate bacteria as disease-causing pathogens. They can cause diseases in both plants and animals, that can also be life-threatening. Some bacterial diseases can wipe out a year’s worth of crops. In humans, they can cause typhoid, pneumonia, tuberculosis and many more. Before the discovery of vaccines and antibiotics these diseases had caused massive numbers of deaths.
What can be found in eukaryotic cells but not in bacteria?
The most important distinguishing factor between eukaryotic and bacterial cells is the presence and absence of the nucleus respectively. In bacterial cells, the genetic material is arranged in a circular material called a nucleoid. There is no membrane covering the genetic material so we can say that it practically floats in the cytoplasm of the bacteria.
Another important characteristic of eukaryotic cells is the presence of other membrane-bound organelles. This is also absent in bacterial cells as they are nearly devoid of any extra organelles. Bacteria are structurally very simple organisms.
Bacteria arrived on Earth millions of years before the advent of simple unicellular eukaryotic organisms. Even then they have managed to survive to this day without having to undergo any major adaptations or evolutions. This is probably why they could survive over the harsh atmospheric changes. Hence bacteria have acquired the ability to live in all circumstances and environments where no other organism can dream of surviving. Though they seem lacking in comparison to eukaryotes in terms of size or complexity they are still much more individually capable
A monomer is a single molecule of any compound but is most commonly associated with large organic molecules.
Biomolecules can be extremely massive, including hundreds to thousands of distinct molecules. To make things easier, they’re classified as monomers, which are repeating units of smaller molecules.
BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR RESPECTIVE MONOMERS:
BIOMOLECULES
MONOMERS
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides (C:H:O) in the ratio 1:2:1
Lipids
Fatty acids + glycerol (C:H:O)in the ratio greater than 2:1 H:O (carboxyl group)
Unlike most other molecules carbohydrates have a large variety of monomers as they come in a variety of forms. These monomers can be differentiated on whether they have ketose groups or aldose groups or if their chain has 5C or 6C atoms (called pentoses and hexoses respectively).
GLUCOSE: The simplest and most abundantly found hexose sugar. Glucose is the monomer for most commonly known and studied carbohydrate polymers like- starch, cellulose and glycogen.
GALACTOSE: Although not as commonly known it is one of the most components of the lactose disaccharide which is the main sugar present in milk.
FRUCTOSE: Fructoses are the monomers of all fruit sugars that naturally make fruit taste sweet and tart.
DEXTROSE: Dextrose is another hexose sugar that is a component of honey.
Some carbohydrate monomers can also be disaccharides i.e when the monomer itself is made up of 2 sugars itself.
Amino acids(Protein monomers):
Protein monomers are called amino acids- meaning an acid having an amine group. NH2-C(R)-COOH is how we commonly represent amino acids where the amine group and the COOH group are attached to the same carbon atom called the α(alpha)C. The R is any group attached to the C atom and the nature of the amino acids depends on how long or short the R group is.
The human body requires a total of 20 amino acids, which are employed in protein synthesis. They can be classified according to the R group, which refers to the presence of a side chain.
Aliphatic side chains: When the amino acid side chain contains only H and C in them. These include Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine and Proline.
Neutral side chains: These amino acids do not have any polarizing capability due to the presence of alcohol sid-chains. Hence they do not ionize easily. Eg. Serine and Threonine.
Amide side chains: Asparagine and Glutamine are two such amino av=cids that have an amide group or -NH2 in their side chain.
Sulfurated side chains: Amino acids that have -S- in their side chains. Eg, Cysteine and Methionine.
Aromatic side chains: These amino acids have side chain aromatic rings. They include Phenylalanine, Tyrosine and Tryptophan.
Anionic side chains: These amino acids due to the presence of Carboxylic groups in their side chains are anions at ordinary pH and hence act as Bronsted Bases. These are Aspartate and Glutamate.
Cationic side chains: Some amino acids like Histidine, Lysine and Arginine contain side chains that are cationic at neutral pH.
Carboxylic acids with saturated or unsaturated aliphatic chains are called fatty acids. These are the molecules that combine to form lipids or what we commonly call fats. They are mainly based on length or usually based on saturation as it is more health-related.
Based on the length of the aliphatic chain they can be classified as:
Based on the presence or absence of hydrolysable bonds they can be also be classified into:
Saturated fatty acids: This means that they do not have any C=C bonds or Carbon-Carbon double bonds in their aliphatic chains. They have the same chemical formula of CH3-(CH2)n -COOH with variation in the mummer represented by “n”.
Unsaturated fatty acids: The aliphatic chain of these fatty acids has one or more C=C linkages. Unsaturated fatty acids are classed as cis or trans depending on whether the two H atoms close to the double bond protrude on the same or opposite sides of the bond.
trans and cis isomeric forms of Oleic acid Image: Wikipedia
The most biologically significant fatty acids include Palmitoleic acid, Oleic acid, Linoleic acid, Arachidonic acid etc.
Nucleotides (Nucleic Acid monomers):
Nucleic acid monomers are called nucleotides. They are composed of 2 main parts, namely- the nucleoside and a phosphate group. The nucleoside part of the monomer consists of 2 different parts- a pentose sugar and a nitrogen base. These bases are of 2 types- purine and pyrimidine. Purine bases include Adenine and Guanine. Pyrimidine bases include Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil.
Nucleoside= Nitrogen base+ pentose sugar
Nucletide = Nuceloside+phosphate group
There are 2 main nucleic acids- DNA and RNA that can be differentiated based on their sugars or the nitrogen bases in their nucleotide.
Nitrogen bases are Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine.
Nitrogen bases are Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Uracil
A table showing the differences between DNA and RNA
CONCLUSION:
All biomolecules that are present in living systems are composed of a chain or coagulation of monomeric units. This makes it easier for the molecule to be broken down and return to its smallest atomic form after the organism dies. This also makes the biomolecule to be more easily bioavailable i.e it increases their ability to be absorbed by living organisms and systems easier.
So all biomolecules are composed of their specific type of monomers that differ in chemical and structural nature which also determines the polymer’s nature. So technically monomers are the building units of the large biomolecules. The monomers come together to make carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids which are the key physiologically relevant substances in nature.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a major source of energy for living organisms. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates can be classified into different types based on their structure, and one such classification is carbohydrates polymers. Carbohydrate polymers are large molecules made up of repeating units of monosaccharides, which are simple sugars. These polymers have various functions in living organisms, including energy storage and structural support. Some common examples of carbohydrate polymers include cellulose, starch, and glycogen.
Key Takeaways
Carbohydrate Polymer
Examples
Cellulose
Plant cell walls, dietary fiber
Starch
Potatoes, rice, wheat
Glycogen
Animal liver, muscle tissue
Table of Contents
Polysaccharides: Exploring the Complex World of Carbohydrate Polymers
Understanding the Structure and Function of Polysaccharides
The Role of Polysaccharides in Food and Nutrition
Exploring Examples and Uses of Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides: Exploring the Complex World of Carbohydrate Polymers
Polysaccharides are large carbohydrate macromolecules composed of monosaccharide chains. They play a crucial role in various biological processes and have diverse applications in different fields. In this section, we will delve into the biochemistry of carbohydrates and explore the fascinating world of polysaccharides.
Understanding the Structure and Function of Polysaccharides
To comprehend the significance of polysaccharides, it is essential to understand their structure and function. Polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose, glycogen, and chitin consist of glucose polymers arranged in unique ways. Each polysaccharide exhibits distinct properties and serves specific functions in living organisms.
Starch, commonly found in plants, serves as an energy storage molecule. Cellulose, on the other hand, forms the structural component of plant cell walls. Glycogen acts as an energy reserve in animals, while chitin provides structural support in the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans.
The Role of Polysaccharides in Food and Nutrition
Polysaccharides, particularly dietary fiber, play a crucial role in human nutrition. Complex carbohydrates, such as those found in whole grains, fruits, and vegetables, provide a steady release of energy and promote digestive health. They also help regulate blood sugar levels and contribute to a feeling of fullness.
Understanding the properties of different polysaccharides allows food scientists to develop healthier and more nutritious food products. By incorporating polysaccharides into food formulations, manufacturers can enhance texture, improve stability, and increase the fiber content of various food items.
Exploring Examples and Uses of Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides find applications in a wide range of industries. In the scientific and technological realm, researchers at institutions like Virginia Tech and the University of Aveiro in Portugal devote their studies to the chemistry and technological aspects of polysaccharides. Their work is relevant to fields such as biochemistry, material science, and industrial applications.
Industrially, polysaccharides are used in the production of various materials. For instance, the United States Department of Agriculture’s Western Regional Research Center in Albany, California, focuses on developing polysaccharide-based materials with unique properties. In France, the ParisTech Center for Mine and Form, affiliated with the United Institute of Paris, explores the use of polysaccharides in creating sustainable materials.
Understanding Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are an essential macronutrient found in a wide variety of foods. They are one of the main sources of energy for the body and play a crucial role in various biological processes. In this section, we will explore the definition of carbohydrates and the different types that exist.
Definition of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates, also known as saccharides, are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They are classified into three main groups based on their chemical structure: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides: These are the simplest form of carbohydrates and cannot be further broken down into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. These sugars are commonly found in fruits, vegetables, and honey.
Disaccharides: Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides join together through a chemical reaction known as condensation. Some common examples of disaccharides include sucrose (table sugar), lactose (found in milk), and maltose (found in malted grains).
Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharides. They can be further classified into different types based on their structure and function. Polysaccharides include starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin, and dietary fiber.
Polysaccharides are large carbohydrate macromolecules that play important roles in living organisms. They are composed of monosaccharide chains, which are linked together by glycosidic bonds. The specific arrangement of these monosaccharides gives each polysaccharide its unique properties.
Types of Carbohydrates
Starch: Starch is a polysaccharide found in plants and serves as a storage form of energy. It consists of glucose polymers and is commonly found in foods like potatoes, rice, and bread.
Cellulose: Cellulose is another polysaccharide found in plants, but unlike starch, it cannot be digested by humans. It forms the structural component of plant cell walls and provides dietary fiber, which aids in digestion and promotes bowel regularity.
Glycogen: Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals and humans. It is primarily stored in the liver and muscles and serves as a readily available source of energy when needed.
Chitin: Chitin is a polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans. It provides structural support and protection to these organisms.
Dietary Fiber: Dietary fiber refers to the indigestible portion of plant carbohydrates. It adds bulk to the diet, aids in digestion, and helps maintain healthy bowel movements. Examples of dietary fiber-rich foods include whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes.
Carbohydrates are not only important for providing energy but also have various other functions in the body. They are widely used in the food industry as thickening agents, stabilizers, and emulsifiers due to their polysaccharide structure. Additionally, carbohydrates play a crucial role in the biochemistry of carbohydrates, which is a relevant and scientifically important aspect of carbohydrate chemistry.
Carbohydrate Polymers: An Overview
Carbohydrate polymers, also known as polysaccharides, are complex carbohydrates made up of monosaccharide chains. These macromolecules play a crucial role in various biological processes and have numerous applications in different industries.
What is a Carbohydrate Polymer?
Carbohydrate polymers are large molecules composed of repeating units of monosaccharides, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose. These polymers can be found in both plant and animal carbohydrates, serving as an essential source of energy and structural support.
Some common examples of carbohydrate polymers include starch, cellulose, glycogen, and chitin. Starch is a storage polysaccharide found in plants, while cellulose forms the structural component of plant cell walls. Glycogen, on the other hand, is the storage form of glucose in animals, and chitin provides strength to the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans.
Carbohydrate polymers also include dietary fiber, which is a complex carbohydrate that cannot be digested by humans. It plays a crucial role in maintaining digestive health and regulating blood sugar levels.
How are Carbohydrate Polymers Formed?
Carbohydrate polymers are formed through a process called polymerization, where monosaccharide units are linked together by glycosidic bonds. This bonding occurs through the removal of a water molecule, resulting in the formation of longer chains.
The structure of carbohydrate polymers can vary depending on the type of monosaccharide units and the arrangement of glycosidic bonds. For example, starch is composed of both amylose and amylopectin, which have different branching patterns. Cellulose, on the other hand, forms long, straight chains due to the arrangement of its glycosidic bonds.
The biochemistry of carbohydrates and the study of carbohydrate chemistry are relevant fields that devote significant attention to the structure and properties of carbohydrate polymers. Researchers at institutions like Virginia State University, the Polytechnic Institute of Virginia, and the University of Aveiro in Portugal are actively involved in studying the technological and scientific aspects of carbohydrate polymers.
Carbohydrate polymers find applications in various industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, and materials science. In the food industry, they are used as thickeners, stabilizers, and emulsifiers. In pharmaceuticals, they can be used as drug delivery systems and excipients. Additionally, carbohydrate polymers are utilized in the production of biodegradable materials and as additives in various industrial processes.
Examples of Carbohydrate Polymers
Carbohydrate polymers are a diverse group of compounds that play crucial roles in various biological and industrial processes. These polymers are composed of monosaccharide chains, such as glucose polymers, and are known for their complex structures and functions. In this section, we will explore some examples of carbohydrate polymers, including cellulose, cyclodextrin, chitin, hyaluronic acid, chitosan, xanthan, and pectin.
Cellulose
Cellulose is one of the most abundant polysaccharides found in nature. It is a major component of plant cell walls and provides structural support to plants. Cellulose is composed of glucose monomers linked together in long chains, forming a tough and fibrous structure. Due to its high tensile strength and resistance to degradation, cellulose is widely used in industries such as paper, textile, and biofuel production.
Cyclodextrin
Cyclodextrin is a type of carbohydrate polymer that consists of glucose units arranged in a ring structure. It is produced through the enzymatic degradation of starch. Cyclodextrin molecules have a unique shape that allows them to form inclusion complexes with other molecules. This property makes cyclodextrin useful in various applications, including drug delivery systems, food additives, and encapsulation of fragrances and flavors.
Chitin
Chitin is a polysaccharide that is commonly found in the exoskeletons of arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans, as well as in the cell walls of fungi. It is composed of N-acetylglucosamine units linked together. Chitin is known for its strength and rigidity, making it an important structural component in the animal kingdom. It is also used in various industrial applications, including the production of biodegradable plastics and wound healing materials.
Hyaluronic Acid
Hyaluronic acid is a carbohydrate polymer that is naturally present in the human body. It is a major component of connective tissues, such as skin and cartilage, and plays a crucial role in maintaining tissue hydration and lubrication. Hyaluronic acid is widely used in the cosmetic and medical industries for its moisturizing and anti-aging properties. It is also used in ophthalmic surgeries and as a viscosupplement for joint disorders.
Chitosan
Chitosan is derived from chitin through a deacetylation process. It is a versatile carbohydrate polymer with a wide range of applications. Chitosan is known for its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and antimicrobial properties. It is used in various fields, including biomedical applications, drug delivery systems, wound healing, and water treatment.
Xanthan
Xanthan is a polysaccharide produced by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris. It is widely used as a food additive and thickening agent due to its unique rheological properties. Xanthan forms a viscous gel when dissolved in water, providing stability and texture to food products. It is also used in the petroleum industry for drilling fluids and in the production of cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.
Pectin
Pectin is a complex carbohydrate polymer found in the cell walls of plants. It is commonly used as a gelling agent and stabilizer in the food industry, particularly in the production of jams, jellies, and fruit preserves. Pectin is also used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries for its thickening and emulsifying properties.
These examples of carbohydrate polymers highlight the diverse range of structures and functions that these macromolecules possess. From providing structural support to plants and animals to serving as valuable ingredients in various industries, carbohydrate polymers play a significant role in our daily lives.
Functions and Importance of Carbohydrate Polymers
Carbohydrate polymers, also known as polysaccharides, are complex carbohydrates made up of monosaccharide chains. These carbohydrate macromolecules play crucial roles in various biological processes and are found abundantly in both plant and animal carbohydrates. Let’s explore some of the key functions and importance of carbohydrate polymers.
Energy Source
Carbohydrate polymers serve as an essential source of energy for our bodies. When we consume foods rich in complex carbohydrates like starch, our digestive system breaks them down into glucose polymers. Glucose is then absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to cells, where it is used as a primary fuel source for energy production. This makes carbohydrate polymers an important component of a balanced diet, providing the energy needed for daily activities and bodily functions.
Blood Sugar Regulation
Carbohydrate polymers also play a vital role in regulating blood sugar levels. When we consume foods containing simple sugars, such as glucose or fructose, they are quickly absorbed into the bloodstream, causing a rapid increase in blood sugar levels. However, when we consume complex carbohydrates like cellulose or glycogen, they are broken down more slowly, resulting in a gradual release of glucose into the bloodstream. This helps to maintain stable blood sugar levels and prevents sudden spikes or crashes, promoting overall health and well-being.
Digestive Health
Carbohydrate polymers are an excellent source of dietary fiber, which is crucial for maintaining a healthy digestive system. Fiber adds bulk to the stool, promoting regular bowel movements and preventing constipation. It also acts as a prebiotic, providing nourishment for beneficial gut bacteria. Additionally, fiber helps to regulate cholesterol levels and control appetite, aiding in weight management. Including foods rich in carbohydrate polymers, such as whole grains, fruits, and vegetables, can contribute to improved digestive health and overall well-being.
Source of Fiber
Carbohydrate polymers are a significant source of dietary fiber, which is essential for a well-balanced diet. Fiber can be classified into two types: soluble and insoluble. Soluble fiber, found in foods like oats, legumes, and fruits, forms a gel-like substance in the digestive tract, helping to lower cholesterol levels and regulate blood sugar. Insoluble fiber, found in foods like whole grains and vegetables, adds bulk to the stool and promotes regular bowel movements. Including a variety of carbohydrate polymers in our diet ensures an adequate intake of dietary fiber, supporting digestive health and overall wellness.
References:
– Virginia Tech. (n.d.). Polysaccharide. Retrieved from https://www.cheathamhall.com/
– Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Aveiro, Portugal. (n.d.). Carbohydrate Polymers. Retrieved from https://www.ua.pt/
– Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech. (n.d.). Carbohydrate Chemistry. Retrieved from https://www.chem.vt.edu/
– Institute of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Portugal. (n.d.). Carbohydrate Polymers. Retrieved from https://www.ua.pt/
– Hall, L. (n.d.). Polysaccharides. Retrieved from https://www.cheathamhall.com/
– United States Department of Agriculture. (n.d.). Dietary Fiber. Retrieved from https://www.nal.usda.gov/
Sources of Carbohydrate Polymers
Carbohydrate polymers are essential macromolecules found in various food sources. They play a crucial role in providing energy and maintaining overall health. Let’s explore some common sources of carbohydrate polymers and their significance in our diet.
Fruits and Vegetables
Fruits and vegetables are excellent sources of carbohydrate polymers, particularly in the form of dietary fiber. These natural polymers, such as cellulose and pectin, contribute to the structural integrity of plant cells. They cannot be digested by human enzymes, but they play a vital role in maintaining digestive health and promoting regular bowel movements. Consuming a variety of fruits and vegetables ensures an adequate intake of complex carbohydrates and essential nutrients.
Whole Grains
Whole grains, such as oats, brown rice, and whole wheat, are rich sources of carbohydrate polymers like starch. Starch is a complex carbohydrate composed of long chains of glucose molecules. It serves as a valuable energy source and provides a feeling of satiety. The consumption of whole grains is associated with a reduced risk of chronic diseases like heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer. Including whole grains in your diet can contribute to a well-rounded carbohydrate intake.
Legumes
Legumes, including beans, lentils, and chickpeas, are another significant source of carbohydrate polymers. They contain a type of complex carbohydrate called oligosaccharides, which are made up of short chains of monosaccharides. Legumes are also rich in dietary fiber, which aids in digestion and helps regulate blood sugar levels. Additionally, legumes are an excellent plant-based protein source, making them a valuable addition to vegetarian and vegan diets.
Dairy Products
Dairy products, such as milk and yogurt, contain lactose, a carbohydrate polymer composed of glucose and galactose. Lactose is a disaccharide that provides a readily available source of energy. However, some individuals may have lactose intolerance, which means they have difficulty digesting lactose. Fortunately, there are lactose-free alternatives available for those who cannot tolerate lactose.
Frequently Asked Questions
What are Carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They are one of the essential macronutrients required by the body for energy production.
What are Examples of Carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates can be found in various foods such as grains, fruits, vegetables, and dairy products. Some common examples of carbohydrates include bread, rice, pasta, potatoes, bananas, and milk.
What are the Three Types of Carbohydrates?
The three types of carbohydrates are monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are single sugar molecules, while disaccharides are formed by the combination of two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides, on the other hand, are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharides.
What are Simple Carbohydrates?
Simple carbohydrates, also known as simple sugars, are composed of one or two sugar molecules. They are quickly digested and absorbed by the body, providing a rapid source of energy. Examples of simple carbohydrates include glucose, fructose, and sucrose.
What is the Chemical Structure of Carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates have a basic chemical structure consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is usually 2:1, just like in water. The arrangement of these atoms forms different types of carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
What are the Sources of Simple Carbohydrates?
Simple carbohydrates can be found in various natural sources such as fruits, honey, and milk. They are also present in processed foods and beverages, including soda, candy, and desserts. However, it is important to consume simple carbohydrates in moderation as excessive intake can lead to health issues.
What is a Classification of Carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates can be classified based on their structure and complexity. They are categorized into three groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Each group has different properties and functions in the body.
What are the Functions of Carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates play several important roles in the body. They are the primary source of energy for the brain and muscles. Carbohydrates also contribute to the structure of cells and tissues, support proper digestion, and help regulate blood sugar levels. Additionally, dietary fiber, a type of carbohydrate, aids in digestion and promotes bowel regularity.
What are Examples of Polysaccharides?
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharides, or simple sugars. They play a crucial role in our diet and are found in various natural sources. Let’s explore some examples of polysaccharides and their functions.
Polysaccharide
Source
Function
Starch
Plant-based foods like grains, potatoes, and legumes
Starch serves as a storage form of energy in plants. When consumed, it is broken down into glucose for our body to use as fuel.
Cellulose
Fruits, vegetables, and whole grains
Cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls. Although humans cannot digest cellulose, it provides dietary fiber, aiding in digestion and promoting bowel regularity.
Glycogen
Liver and muscle tissues in animals
Glycogen acts as a storage form of glucose in animals. It can be broken down into glucose when energy is needed, such as during exercise or fasting.
Chitin
Exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans, cell walls of fungi
Chitin provides structural support and protection in organisms. It is also used in the production of biodegradable materials and wound dressings.
Dietary Fiber
Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes
Dietary fiber includes various polysaccharides like cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. It promotes satiety, aids in digestion, and helps maintain healthy cholesterol levels.
Polysaccharides are essential for our overall health and well-being. They provide a steady release of energy, support digestion, and contribute to the proper functioning of our body systems. Incorporating a variety of polysaccharide-rich foods in our diet is important for maintaining a balanced and nutritious eating plan.
What are the Healthy Sources of Carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are an important macronutrient that provides energy to our bodies. While it’s crucial to choose the right types of carbohydrates, not all sources are equally beneficial. Here are some healthy sources of carbohydrates that you can include in your diet:
Whole Grains: Opt for whole grain products like brown rice, quinoa, whole wheat bread, and oats. These are rich in fiber, vitamins, and minerals, and have a lower glycemic index compared to refined grains.
Fruits: Enjoy a variety of fruits such as berries, apples, oranges, and bananas. They contain natural sugars along with fiber, antioxidants, and essential nutrients.
Vegetables: Include a wide range of vegetables in your meals, such as leafy greens, broccoli, carrots, and bell peppers. These provide carbohydrates along with vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber.
Legumes: Lentils, chickpeas, black beans, and kidney beans are excellent sources of carbohydrates and plant-based protein. They are also high in fiber and have a low glycemic index.
Dairy Products: Choose low-fat or fat-free dairy products like milk, yogurt, and cottage cheese. These provide carbohydrates along with calcium, protein, and other essential nutrients.
Sweet Potatoes: Swap regular potatoes with sweet potatoes, which are packed with complex carbohydrates, fiber, and vitamins A and C.
Remember, it’s important to balance your carbohydrate intake with other macronutrients like protein and healthy fats. Aim for a variety of nutrient-dense foods to ensure you’re getting a well-rounded diet.
So, whether you’re looking for polysaccharides or healthy sources of carbohydrates, incorporating a diverse range of plant-based and whole food options will help you meet your nutritional needs.
Carbohydrates are essential macromolecules that play a crucial role in our bodies. They are polymers made up of monosaccharide units, which are linked together through glycosidic bonds. These polymers can be classified into three main types: starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
Starch is a storage polysaccharide found in plants, while cellulose forms the structural component of plant cell walls. On the other hand, glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals. These examples of carbohydrate polymers demonstrate the diverse functions and importance of carbohydrates in living organisms.
Understanding the different types of carbohydrate polymers helps us appreciate their significance in providing energy, maintaining cell structure, and supporting various biological processes. By studying these examples, we can gain insights into the complex world of carbohydrates and their role in our overall health and well-being.
References
In the field of biochemistry, the study of carbohydrates is crucial. Polysaccharides, such as starch, cellulose, glycogen, and chitin, are complex carbohydrates that play essential roles in various biological processes. These carbohydrate macromolecules consist of monosaccharide chains, such as glucose polymers, which form the basis of their structure.
Understanding the biochemistry of carbohydrates is a topic that researchers and scientists at various institutions have devoted their efforts to. The Virginia Tech Department of Chemistry, located at 775 West Campus Drive, is one such institution that focuses on the scientific and technological aspects of polysaccharides. Their research is relevant to both the industrial and nutritional aspects of carbohydrate polymers in food.
Another institution that contributes to the study of carbohydrates is the Aveiro Institute of Materials (CICECO) at the University of Aveiro in Portugal. They explore the chemistry and applications of carbohydrate polymers, including their use in the development of industrially relevant materials.
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) also conducts research on carbohydrates. Their Agricultural Research Service (ARS) investigates the structure and functions of carbohydrate polymers, providing valuable insights into their various applications.
In addition to these institutions, the scientific community has published numerous articles on the topic of polysaccharides. Journals such as the Journal of Polysaccharide, the Journal of Carbohydrate Chemistry, and the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry are dedicated to publishing research related to carbohydrate polymers.
Furthermore, the Polytechnic Institute of ParisTech in France and the University of Virginia’s Department of Chemistry are also involved in the study of carbohydrate polymers. These institutions contribute to the understanding of the chemical properties and potential applications of polysaccharides.
By studying the structure, properties, and applications of polysaccharides, researchers aim to unlock the full potential of these natural polymers. Their work has implications in various fields, including food science, materials science, and biomedical research.
Overall, the study of carbohydrates and their polymers is a multidisciplinary field that requires collaboration between researchers, scientists, and institutions worldwide. Through their collective efforts, they continue to expand our knowledge and understanding of these complex molecules.
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What are some examples of carbohydrates with unique structures?
Carbohydrate Structure and Examples: A Guide explores the diverse structures of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are macromolecules composed of monosaccharide units linked together in various ways. These molecules play essential roles in living organisms and serve as a principal source of energy. Some examples of carbohydrates with unique structures include cellulose, chitin, and glycogen. Cellulose forms the structural component of plant cell walls and is composed of glucose units linked together in a linear fashion. Chitin, found in the exoskeleton of arthropods, consists of modified glucose units with nitrogen-containing functional groups. Glycogen, the storage form of glucose in animals, features a highly branched structure. A deeper understanding of carbohydrate structures enhances our knowledge of their functions and biological importance.
How are carbohydrates related to polymers and monomers in terms of their molecular structure?
Carbohydrates, which include sugars, starches, and cellulose, can exist as both monomers and polymers. Monomers are the individual units that link together to form polymers. In the case of carbohydrates, monomers called monosaccharides join together to create polysaccharides, which are polymer chains. For example, glucose is a monosaccharide that can polymerize to form complex carbohydrates like starch and cellulose. To learn more about the molecular structure of carbohydrates and their classification as monomers or polymers, check out the article “Is a Carbohydrate Monomer or Polymer?”.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is a Carbohydrate Polymer?
A carbohydrate polymer is a complex carbohydrate structure that is formed by the linkage of smaller monosaccharides. They are natural polymers that play crucial roles in various biological functions. Examples include polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, glycogen, and chitin.
How are Carbohydrate Polymers Formed?
Carbohydrate polymers are formed through a process known as polymerization. This involves the linkage of monosaccharide chains through glycosidic bonds, resulting in the formation of complex structures like glucose polymers.
What are Some Examples of Carbohydrate Polymers?
Examples of carbohydrate polymers include polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose, glycogen, and chitin. These are complex carbohydrates that are found in various plant and animal sources.
Are Carbohydrates Considered Polymers?
Yes, carbohydrates are considered polymers because they are composed of monomer units linked together. These monomer units are simple sugars or monosaccharides.
Do Carbohydrates Form Polymers?
Yes, carbohydrates do form polymers. When monosaccharides, the building blocks of carbohydrates, link together, they form complex structures known as carbohydrate polymers or polysaccharides.
What Polymer is Carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are polymers known as polysaccharides. They are formed from the linkage of monosaccharides, which are simple sugars.
What are the Functions of Carbohydrate Polymers?
Carbohydrate polymers play various roles in biochemistry. They serve as energy storage (like starch and glycogen), provide structural support (like cellulose in plants and chitin in insects), and are part of dietary fiber.
What are the Uses of Carbohydrate Polymers in Food?
In food, carbohydrate polymers like starch and cellulose are used as thickeners, stabilizers, and gelling agents. They also contribute to the dietary fiber content of the food.
Which Carbohydrates are Polymers?
Polysaccharides are carbohydrates that are polymers. Examples include starch, cellulose, glycogen, and chitin.
Can you give examples of Carbohydrate Monomer and Polymer?
A common example of a carbohydrate monomer is glucose, a simple sugar. When multiple glucose units link together, they form a carbohydrate polymer, such as starch or cellulose.
Carbohydrates or carbs can be both monomers and polymers, depending on their complexity.
Monomermers of carbohydrates are called monosaccharides and are small molecules having a 3-6 carbon chain. while complex carbohydrates are generally referred to as polysaccharides. These polysaccharides can be formed of 2 or more monomers which can be identical or different.
Carbohydrates, including sugars, starches, and fibers, are composed of 3 main elements- Carbon(C), Hydrogen, and Oxygen(O).
CARBOHYDRATE MONOMERS OR MONOSACCHARIDES:
Monomers of carbs are simple or technically single sugar molecules. The word monosaccharide is composed of two terms- “mono,” meaning single, and saccharide, which is sugar.
Monosaccharides are carbohydrate monomers because they cannot be broken into any further smaller molecules.
Monosaccharides have a 3-7 carbon backbone. They cannot be bigger or smaller than that as it affects the stability of the molecule.
The most common monosaccharide that we know of is table sugar which is nothing but a monosaccharide called glucose. This is the same sugar that plants produce during photosynthesis.
Another important sugar is the one that makes the backbone of our genetic material, i.e., DNA and RNA. The sugars involved are Deoxyribose and Ribose, respectively.
If sugars have a ketone group R-C=O, they are called ketoses, while if they have an aldehyde group R-CHO, they are called aldoses. (The R stands for a carbonyl group which means a long carbon chain with other groups attached)
They are labelled based on the number of C atoms present in the main backbone structure. So 5 C monosaccharides are classified pentoses while 6 C monosaccharides are classified as hexose.
MONOSACCHARIDE STRUCTURES:
The most commonly occurring monosaccharides usually contain 5 or 6 Carbon backbones, meaning pentose and hexose sugars are more abundant in nature. This is because they, in the free form they form stable pentagonal and hexagonal structures that do not hydrolyze further.
SOME COMMON MONOSACCHARIDES:
PENTOSE:
RIBOSE AND DEOXYRIBOSE:
They are both pentose sugars meaning they have five carbon atoms, the only difference being that the 2’C is attached to a Hydroxyl(-OH) group in the case of ribose and a Hydrogen in the case of Deoxyribose. This one feature, along with its double-stranded nature, is what makes the DNA structure more stable.
Glucose is the most monosaccharide that we are familiar with. The most commonly occurring hexose sugar is a monosaccharide that runs all bodily activities of living organisms.
GALACTOSE:
Another hexose sugar is very similar to glucose.
FRUCTOSE:
These hexose sugars are present in fruits, and what gives them their sweetness is hence commonly referred to as fruit sugars.
DEXTROSE:
This is a hexose sugar that is specifically present in honey—considered one of the healthiest sugars after fructose.
CARBOHYDRATE POLYMERS OR POLYSACCHARIDES:
They are usually polymers composed of 2 or more monomers that can be attached linearly or can form connected layers . These monomers can be the same or a mix of more than one type.
most naturally occurring form of carbohydrates
They are also called glycans.
If they are made of the same type of monomers, they are called homopolysaccharides, while if they are made of 2 or more different types o monomers, they are called heteropolysaccharides.
Heteropolysaccharides can also have other biomolecules associated with them other than monosaccharides. These polysaccharides are classified according to the molecules associated with them.
They usually require specific hydrolyzing enzymes to digest or break them down to their monomeric forms—E.g., lactase and amylase.
SOME COMMON POLYSACCHARIDES:
HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES
GLYCOGEN:
Another homopolysaccharide composed of glucose (C6H10O5)n is the primary form of carbohydrate stored in higher animals. Stored in the human muscle and liver cells, glycogen is broken down to glucose when required by the body in a process called glycogenolysis.
CELLULOSE:
The component of plant cells walls is one of the largest polysaccharide molecules(C6H10O5)n. Cellulose can be made up of more than 3000 molecules of glucose connected in straight lines as in layers. They are the most abundant organic matter found in nature.
This is another glucose polysaccharide produced by plants that are used as a food reserve(C6H10O5)n. Stored in specific parts like roots, tubers, and seeds, they are energy reserves to be used in unfavorable environmental conditions or during germination or dormancy. They are formed by α 1,4 linkages between the glucose molecules.
PECTIN:
Pectins are another homopolysaccharide found in the cell wall and intracellular tissues of some plants. Because of their stretch and jelly-like composition, they are used to make gelatin for food products.
CHITIN:
A polysaccharide is found in the hard exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans. But unlike most common homopolymers, the chitin monomers are N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, a derivative of the glucose molecule.
A disaccharide with the formula C12H22O11 is made of 2 monomers, glucose, and galactose. Lactose is the major sugar present in milk. Lactose requires an enzyme called lactase to break it down into its monomers. If lactase is not naturally produced by an individual in the required quantity, they are said to be lactose intolerant.
SUCROSE:
The disaccharide sucrose C12H22O11 is used in our everyday life as what we know as table sugar and is composed of one molecule of glucose attached to one molecule of fructose.
HEPARIN:
An anticoagulant drug(a medicine used to remove blood clots during allergic reactions or surgeries) also occurs naturally in human lung and liver tissues. Composed of 3 monomers D-glucuronic acid, L-iduronic acid, and N-sulfo-D-glucosamine
Often used in cosmetic creams and serums, hyaluronic acid is another polysaccharide commonly occurring in the human body. Made up of repeating monomers of D-glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, it has great water-retaining properties. Due to this reason, it works as a moisture barrier, lubricant, and shock absorbent liquid in connective tissue and the skin.
CONCLUSION:
As seen from the above examples, it can be confidently said that in nature, carbohydrates occur in both monomer and polymers forms. Both are equally important and have their specific functions. While monomers are mainly used as immediate energy sources, polymers function as energy reserves, structural components, or as drugs. They are both equally essential to normal organic reactions.
Cells that have a defined nucleus with the genetic material in them are called eukaryotic cells.
Originating from the Greek words “Eu” meaning “true” and karyon meaning nut or “kernel,” the word Eukaroun means actual kernel or nucleus. So eukaryotic cells refer to those cells with a membrane-bound nuclear material instead of floating around the cell cytoplasm.
Eukaryotes comprise plants, animals, protists, and fungi. Generally, their genetic material or DNA is found assembled in the nucleus, which is again surrounded by a nuclear membrane. They also have several other membrane-bound organelles that have specific functions. This is the main feature that distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes-like bacteria. Bacterial cells do not have any cell organelles as such, and their genetic material, which can be RNA or DNA, just randomly floats about in the cytoplasm.
Eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals, so they are categorized in a biological kingdom are classified as protists. The organisms are so diverse that they can be more closely related to a fungus, plant, or animal cell rather than another Protista. These mainly include bacteria, amoeba, or algae.
AMOEBA:
Also called amoeboid is a unicellular eukaryotic cell closely related to animal cells. This means they do not have a cell wall and can change their shape, which gives them the ability to move from one place to another. They can extend their cell wall to make leg-like appendages called pseudopodia(“pseudo” meaning false; “podia” representing feet) and use them to move forward. They also contain a membrane-bound nucleus with granular DNA.
They make up a phylum called Dinoflagellata and are considered algae. They are a form of marine eukaryotic unicellular organism. They have a flagellum (a whip-like structure) used for locomotion which gives it its name -Dinos(Greek word whirling) and Latin Flagallae. These organisms often exhibit a phenomenon called Biolumenesence- a natural light produced by living organisms using an internal chemical reaction. These are primarily marine plankton but can also occur in freshwater. These organisms, like plants, can photosynthesize and are responsible for the significant amount of oxygen that is produced by our oceans.
E.g., Noctilucascintillans – A marine species that can occur in red or green forms depending on the nature of the present pigment.
Several species of this protozoa are parasitic and can cause life-threatening diseases. These include P.vivax and P.falciparum, which both cause different types of malaria in humans.
Macrogametocyte and microgametocyte of P.falciparum Image: Wikipedia
FUNGI
Another group of eukaryotic organisms most distinguishable to us from the mushrooms we eat is the yeast that goes into our bread dough or the mold that grows on that very bread spoiling it. Though considered plants, they cannot photosynthesize due to the absence of chlorophyll, hence developing a saprophytic lifestyle.
YEAST
The powder we regularly add to our bread and cake doughs is made of a unicellular eukaryotic fungus. Also, being used in wine and beer making has earned this genus the name of brewer’s and baker’s yeast. These organisms are saprophytic, i.e., they use the sugars in the dough and use it as food and release carbon dioxide as a result which causes the dough to rise. Fungi also have cell walls, but these are composed of chitin instead of the usual cellulose as in plants.
PLANT CELLS
Plant cells are one of the most abundant among eukaryotes. These cells have some specific characters, including the presence of a cell wall and the presence of a pigment-containing organelle. The cell wall is usually composed of cellulose and gives plant cells the ability to retain their shape. The pigment-containing organelle is what allows plants to photosynthesize. This pigment can be of many types.
Two layers cover the basic unit of plants- a cellulose-made cell wall and a phospholipid bilayer cell membrane. The most distinguishing factor is the presence of chloroplast, a type of plastid (a double membrane-bound organelle) that contains pigments that can convert Carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen. There are other plastids as well that serve different functions.
Types of plastids in plants:
Chloroplasts: these are found in all the mesophyll cells in the green tissues of plants. They contain the green pigment that gives plants their characteristic green color and allows them to photosynthesize. Non-green plants can synthesize too, but the chemical reaction is different.
Chromoplasts: These contain other pigments, excluding green. Chloroplasts turn to chromo as the plant matures. Found in flowers, fruits, and non-green leaves. These contain orange, red and yellow pigments. These are the pigments that make flowers visually appealing.
Leucoplast: Non-pigmented plastids their primary function is storage instead of synthesis. They are of 3 main types:
Amyloplast: They are the most abundant and are used in starch storage.
Alaioplast: These organelles store oils and fatty acids that are required by the plant cells.
Proteinoplast: As suggested by the name, they are protein storage vessels. These are primarily found in seeds- the very reason legumes and pulses are considered a rich protein source.
Animal cells are the most commonly found cells among the eukaryotes. Unlike plants, they are only covered by a lipid bilayer, making them semipermeable. This means it allows the cells to exchange materials in liquid and gaseous forms. Being devoid of a cell wall also means that animal cells do not have a fixed shape, and they vary in shape even in a single organism.
Neurons: Unlike most normal cells, nerve cells or neurons are distinguishable because of their strange shape. Used to transmit stimuli in the form of electrochemical signals, unlike other cells, they are constantly not produced throughout life. Unlike most animal cells that communicate via their cell membranes, neurons connect to other neurons via unique connections called synapses. These synapses are different as a thin membrane covers them to protect the delicate neuron ends and ensure the links remain stable.
Red Blood cells or RBCs: Red blood cells are biconcave, but unlike other eukaryotic cells, they do not have a nucleus. This, along with their shape, allows for maximum gaseous absorption. They have an iron-containing pigment called hemoglobin which binds to the oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules to transport them through the body.
Humans are composed of animal cells but only of a single specific type.
Scientifically, animal cells are the structural and functional units or essentially the building bricks of all organisms that belong to Kingdom Animalia.
They can specify and form any required tissue, organ or organism based on the genomic components.
Animal cells are eukaryotic cells(i.e cells containing a defined nucleus), surrounded only by a plasma membrane, unlike plant cells which are enclosed by both cell membrane and cell wall. The absence of the cell wall means the cells do not have a rigid or specific shape. But in contrast, this allows the cells to have different shapes and form different tissues, organs and organ systems.
Human cells are just the specific animal cells that make up humans, for ultimately they are animals as well.
Components of an animal cell:
Generally smaller than plant cells with an irregular shape due to the absence of the cell wall animal cells still come in a variety of sizes based on the organism. But similar to plant cells they have all the other major organelles characteristic of eukaryotes.
Kingdom Animalia begins from Sponges and ends at Mammalia with humans or Homosapienssapiens being the most advanced. With the evolution and advancement of the organisms, there is advancement in their cellular complexity, but the main components remain the same.
Cell membrane or the thin covering that protects cells(the thin while layer that we often peel off boiled eggs). The cell membrane allows the cell to exchange gases and also communicate with adjacent cells.
Golgi Apparatus and Ribosomes: The ribosomes main function is to synthesize proteins that are received by the Golgi apparatus. They receive them along with lipids from the Endoplasmic Reticulum after which they are transported to their target sites.
Lysosomes are cell cleaners. They are enzyme filled packets that dispose of or recycle any material that is unwanted in the cell.
Ribosomes are simply the protein synthesis centres. These are small organelles that are often stuck to the nuclear membrane and the ER.
Vacuoles are empty pockets that can beused for storing water, waste products or even food by the cell.
These include the most common animal cell types that occur most frequently throughout the animal kingdom. These include
Skin Cells: They occur in all animalsand may have more than one layer called the dermis.
Muscle cells: Animal are distinguished by their ability to move. Except in the case of unicellular or sedentary (those that do not move)organisms, most animals have muscle cells to help in movement. They also make up
some important organs like the heart.
Blood cells or corpuscles are the cellular components present in most animal vascular systems.
Nerve cells Animal having even the simplest nervous systems have a collection of nerve cells which may just form a ganglion.
Fat cells Most animals use fat cells present to store food materials for hibernation or morphing.
Some specialized animal cells present in lower animals:
Choanocyte: Specialised cells in sponges have a flagellum that helps to control the movement and flow of water throughout the cavity of the organism.
Cnidocytes: Found in cnidarian like jellyfish and hydra these cells are also called stinging cells. They contain organelles called nematocysts – consisting of a coiled thread occasionally with barbs. These cells allow the animal to sting and immobilize prey with poison. (Box jellyfish are one of the most venomous animals in the world)
Flame Cells: Found specifically in phylum Ctenophora or simply what we call flatworms(most intestinal parasites belong to this category). Since they are not developed flame cells in these animals act as kidneys to filter toxins and waste from the circulating fluid.
How many animal cells does a human have?
Technically speaking humans have only one type of cell i.e the human genomic cell.
Humans are the most complex organism created in nature, consisting of trillions of cells. But they all have the same genomic constituency containing 3 million base pairs. All the cells are grouped according to function and organs. But they are all the same type of animal cell i.e. a human cell.
Though the cell genomic content is the same the all the cells do not have the same structure or function.
The cells have been differentiated in foetal form and they form different tissues, organs and organ systems.
Neurons: Or nerve cells is the basic unit of the nervous system that controls all bodily functions in the body. These cells carry messages from the brain to all the organs and muscles with the help of small electro-chemical signals.
Muscle Cells: Comprising of three types(smooth, cardiac and skeletal) these cells form muscles that make movement possible. Cardiac muscles form the heart and its walls, which allows it to rapidly pump blood.It is because these cells are made up of fibres that allow contraction.
Red Blood Cells: Making up the corpuscular part of blood, these cells have a biconcave discoid shape. The main function of RBCs is to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and fro from the lungs. For this purpose, RBCs have an iron component called Haemoglobin that turns red on binding with oxygen giving the red colour; hence the name.
Leucocytes: Typically called White Blood Cells or WBCs, they make up the immune system in humans. Found in both the blood and the lymphatic system, these cells help us fight against infectious diseases and foreign particles(like allergens).
They are further divided into:
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocyte
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes can also be of 3 types– T Cells, B cells and Natural Killer Cells.
Nephrons: These are specialized cells that are found in Kidneys. They look like a sieve with a large tube and remove the excess salts, waster products and unnecessary materials from the blood.
All animals ranging from sponges to mammals are composed of animal cells. These cells can form a simple organism or can form tissues, organs and systems i.e more complex. Some cells may be specifically produced by a certain animal to adapt to its environment.
So animal cells in scientific terms are limited to animals only. Plant cells that make up the major portion of the Earth’s biomass are vastly different in composition. The most important difference is the presence of cell walls and chlorophyll or other pigment-containing organelles. Cell walls made up of polysaccharides are present in all organisms that we consider plants- even unicellular yeast. The cell wall is what gives plant cells their rigidity and the ability to last through a long time(the very reason wood furniture is so long-lasting).
The second biggest difference is the presence of chlorophyll. This is a pigment found in a plant-specific organelle called – CHLOROPLAST. This pigment allows plants to photosynthesize i.e to produce their food in the form of simple sugar(hence the name Autotrophs). Chlorophyll uses light energy as a catalyst and converts atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and water to Glucose and oxygen.
Structure of a chloroplast Image credit: Wikimedia
Humans are considered as higher beings but being classified in kingdom Animalia means they are animals. Under a microscope, a cell taken from a random animal and one taken from human tissue will not have much difference. This characteristic is what allows scientists to discover how closely one animal species or genus is related to another.
