Hey! I am Sneha Sah, I have completed post graduation in Biotechnology. Science has always been fascinating to me and writing is my passion. As an academic writer my aim is to make Science easy and simple to learn and read.
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small, disc-shaped cell fragments that play a crucial role in blood clotting and hemostasis. One of the defining characteristics of platelets is their lack of a nucleus, which sets them apart from other blood cells. This article delves into the intricate details of platelets and their unique nuclear-free structure, exploring the reasons behind this distinctive feature and its implications for their function and capabilities.
The Absence of a Nucleus in Platelets
Platelets are derived from the fragmentation of larger cells called megakaryocytes, which reside in the bone marrow. During this process, the nuclear material is discarded, leaving behind the cytoplasmic fragments that become the platelets. This lack of a nucleus is a defining characteristic of platelets and is crucial for their specialized functions.
Size Considerations
Platelets are remarkably small, with an average diameter of 2-4 micrometers (μm), which is significantly smaller than a typical human cell nucleus, which measures around 6 μm in diameter. This diminutive size allows platelets to easily navigate through the narrow blood vessels and capillaries, enabling them to reach sites of injury or inflammation quickly and efficiently.
Functional Advantages
The absence of a nucleus in platelets confers several functional advantages:
Rapid Response: Without the need to transcribe and translate genetic information, platelets can respond to stimuli and undergo activation much more rapidly than nucleated cells.
Increased Surface Area: The lack of a nucleus allows platelets to have a higher surface area-to-volume ratio, which enhances their ability to interact with other cells and molecules during hemostasis and thrombosis.
Improved Circulation: The small size and lack of a nucleus enable platelets to easily traverse the narrow blood vessels and capillaries, ensuring efficient circulation throughout the body.
Morphological Flexibility: Platelets can undergo dramatic shape changes, such as extending pseudopodia, to facilitate their adhesion and aggregation at sites of vascular injury. The absence of a nucleus allows for this remarkable plasticity.
Protein Synthesis and Regulation
Despite their lack of a nucleus, platelets are capable of producing a wide range of proteins, including those involved in coagulation, signaling, and immune response. This is achieved through the utilization of messenger RNA (mRNA) and ribosomes, which are present in the cytoplasm of platelets.
Platelets can also take up and store RNA from external sources, such as microvesicles released by other cells. These exogenous RNAs can then be used by platelets to synthesize proteins or regulate their own functions through mechanisms like microRNA (miRNA) mediated gene expression.
Furthermore, platelets possess a complex system of organelles, including mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus, which facilitate the efficient production and regulation of proteins without the need for a nucleus.
Platelet Activation and Function
Platelets play a crucial role in hemostasis, the process of stopping bleeding. Upon vascular injury, platelets become activated and undergo a series of morphological changes, including shape change, adhesion, and aggregation. These processes are mediated by various signaling pathways and the release of granule contents, all of which occur without the involvement of a nucleus.
Activated platelets also release a variety of bioactive molecules, such as growth factors, cytokines, and chemokines, which can modulate the immune response, inflammation, and tissue repair. This nuclear-free functionality highlights the remarkable adaptability and versatility of platelets in maintaining homeostasis and responding to various physiological and pathological conditions.
Platelet Disorders and Implications
Alterations in platelet number, function, or structure can lead to various hematological disorders, such as thrombocytopenia, thrombocytosis, and platelet function defects. These conditions can have significant clinical implications, including an increased risk of bleeding or thrombosis, and may require specialized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.
Understanding the unique nuclear-free nature of platelets is crucial for interpreting platelet-related laboratory tests, such as the complete blood count (CBC) and platelet function assays, as well as for developing targeted therapies for platelet-related disorders.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the absence of a nucleus in platelets is a defining characteristic that confers numerous functional advantages, enabling these small cellular fragments to play a vital role in hemostasis, immune response, and various other physiological processes. The intricate mechanisms underlying platelet function, protein synthesis, and regulation, despite their lack of a nucleus, continue to fascinate researchers and clinicians alike, paving the way for advancements in the understanding and management of platelet-related disorders.
A Methodical Approach to Interpreting the Platelet Parameters of the Complete Blood Count (CBC) – Clinical Laboratory Science. (2014). Retrieved from https://clsjournal.ascls.org/content/30/3/194
Gremmel, T., Frelinger, A. L., 3rd, & Michelson, A. D. (2016). Platelet Physiology. Seminars in thrombosis and hemostasis, 42(3), 191–204. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1564835
Machlus, K. R., & Italiano, J. E., Jr (2013). The incredible journey: From megakaryocyte development to platelet formation. The Journal of cell biology, 201(6), 785–796. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201304054
Semple, J. W., Italiano, J. E., Jr, & Freedman, J. (2011). Platelets and the immune continuum. Nature reviews. Immunology, 11(4), 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri2956
In this article we are focusing on the hybrid species examples with detailed facts.
Hybrid in biological terms means a cross between two different species that results in the next generation offspring inheriting features from two different species. Hybridization is an interbreeding of two different species to generate new varieties possessing qualities and characteristics from two species which can be beneficial in many ways.
Examples of Hybrid Species
There are a number of natural hybrids as well as hybrids that are made in laboratories or by breeding different plants and animals.Some of the hybrid species examples are listed below:
Liger is the hybrid of a male lion and a female tiger. They are the largest cat known in the world. Hercules a liger has been listed in the Guinness book of world record for being the largest living cat in the world. They are carnivorous and hunts other animals for food. They are found in Africa, Asia, Eurasia and North-America and ae capable of breeding.
Tigon is also called Tigon and is a hybrid off spring of a male Tiger and Female Lion. They are capable of breeding and produce Li-Tigons their next generation off springs. Currently there are less than hundred tigons in the world. They have been kept in captivity for their protection.
It is known to be a most rare hybrid that is produced as a result of mating between female common bottlenose dolphin and a false killer male whale. “Keikaimalu” is the world’s first known wholphin that survived. Their skin is dark grey and has 66 teeth, and are mostly found in warm temperate and tropical waters. Currently there are two wholphins known that have been kept in captivity for their protection at Sea Life Park in Hawaii.
The first Leopon was bred in Kolhapur, India, their head resembles a lion and the rest of the body is similar to leopards. They live in captivity and have been bred in zoo. They are found in Germany, Japan and Italy.
Beefalo (Bubalus bubalis × Bos taurus)
They are known to be fertile cattle and docile in nature. They were bred in the United States by the interbreeding of a male buffalo and a domestic cow. They are found in USA and Australia. They are popular for their meet whichis lower in calories, cholesterol and saturated fats and are rich in protein.
Jaglion (Panthera onca × Panthera leo)
Jaglion or Jaguon are hybrid offspring of a Male Jaguar and a female Lion. They have been listed as endangered species but they can be produced easily. They live in zoos and their habitats are made up of trees, bushes, ponds, rocks, etc.
They are produced as a result of the cross between a male zebra and a female horse and are also called Zorses. They are usually infertile. They are found in Africa zoos.
Geep (Ovis aries × Capra hircus)
It is a hybrid of Sheep and Goat, also known as Shoat. These hybrids are very rare because of the distant habitats of sheep and goats.
It is a hybrid offspring of a male camel and a female llama and was produced in Dubai using the Artificial insemination technique. They were created to improve and enhance the wool production.
They are herbivores and feed on plant matters and shrubs.
Savannah Cat (Felis catus × Leptailurus serval)
It is a hybrid breed of cat produced by the selective breeding between a domestic cat and a serval. Serval is a wild cat found in Africa. They are kept in captives and are being sold by registered breeders in countries including USA, Canada, Mexica, Japan, Sweden, UK, France and Germany.
They are found in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New jersey, Maryland, Florid, Texas, Novo Scotia and Canada.They feed on Algae and retains its chloroplast in its digestive system and maintain them alive in their own gut for months. They incorporate the algae chloroplast through phagocytosis and make it a part of their own cellular content. The incorporationof chloroplasts allows them to undergo photosynthesis and absorb the energy irectly from the sunlight this is how the can survive for months even without food.
Clymene dolphin (Stenella clymene)
It is the Short-snouted spinner dolphin found in the Atlantic Ocean. It is the only known hybrid species in marine mammals. Thy eat small fish and they are very active, hunt in the night or in the twilight zone waters. Their total population is still unknown, an approximate number of 6,500 have been reported.
Narluga (Delphinapterus D. leucas × Monodon M. monoceros)
They are the hybrid result of mating between a female narwhal and a male beluga whale.
Zonkey or Zeedonk is a hybrid species produced as a result of the mating between a female donkey and a make zebra. It looks unique in its appearance and are smaller in size. Charles Darwin mentioned about Zonkeys in his theory of “Origin of Species” in 1859. They are found in savannas and in open woodlands in Serengeti plains. They are herbivores and eat only plant materials and fruits.
Pizzly (Ursus arctos × Ursus maritimus)
Pizzly is a hybrid of Grizzly and a polar bear, also called Grolar beers. They have been found in Sachs harbour, Northwest Territories and on the Banks Island in Canadian Arctic.
It is also known as Ladies’ fingers or ochro. It is a flowering plant with greed edible seed pods that are cooked as food. It is being cultivated in subtropical and warm tropical areas including, West Africa, Ethiopia, Southeast Asia and South Asia.
Kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa)
It is also known as Chinese gooseberry, an edible fruit that belongs to the family Actinidiaceace. A sweet kiwifruit with hairless skin has been produced by interspecific hybridization between A. deliciosa and A. arguta.
Pineapple (Ananas comosus):
It is an edible fruit plant that grows in tropical areas, it has been cultivated in South America for centuries and sound in Brazil, Bolivia, India, Paraguay and Ecuador.
Peanut (Arachis hypogaea):
It is a hybrid produced by the cross between A. cardenasii and A. Batizocoi in Bolivia. They have been made to be resistant against pest and disease tolerant. They are very important legume food crops being cultivated throughout tropical and sub-tropical areas.
Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana):
It is a Perennial plant that belongs to the Brassicaceae family. It is being cultivated worldwide and used as a spice and to add flavor to the food. It is grown in several areas in United States including, California, Claire, Wisconsin, and Tule Lake.
Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan):
It is a legume plant that is widely cultivated in Tropical and semitropical areas including, South and South East Asia, Africa, Latin America and India. It is known with different names depending on the region for example in India it is called Arhar dhal or Tur, in America it is known as Guandul.
Hemp (Cannabis sativa):
It is a unisexual day flowering plant and is distributed widely. It has been used widely as Industrial fiber, Seed Oil, Food, medicine and religious purposes.
It is a rapidly growing deciduous tree. There are several related species including European sweet chestnut, Chinese chestnut and Japanese chestnut. The American and Chinese chestnut have been cross bred to produce the American-Chinese Hybrid species in American Chestnut Foundation to create genetically similar American species with resistant qualities inherited from Chinese species.
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa):
It is unique in its nutritional value and has been known worldwide because of its high protein content. It is gluten free and contains high amounts of fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, fibers and carbohydrates. It is a herbaceous plant found in the Andean region of South America, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Argentina and Chile.
It is also known as Bitter bigarade or Serville orange. It is a native plant to Southeast Asia, Fiji, Samoa and Guam, Arab, Florida and is commercially produced inmany countries.
Hazelnut (Corylus avellana):
It is a flowering plant that belong to the family Betuliaceae, found in Europe and Western Asia. They are grown widely and produced commercially in Europe, Turkey, Iran and Caucasus. They are also known as cobnut. They are rich in proteins, unsaturated fats, manganese, copper, vitamin E, thiamine and magnesium.
Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa)
It was originated in Europe and now became one of the very important and popular food crops. Now it became largely cultivated variety throughput the world. Strawberries are rich in vitamin C. They grow well in subtropical to temperate areas. It is an allooctoploid produced from an interspecific hybridization between Fragaria virginiana and Fragaria chiloensis.
Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa)
It is a flowering plant found in West Africa, Southeast Asia, Latin America and Caribbean. It is also known as Florida cranberry, red sorrel or Jamaica sorrel. It is used for medicinal purpose as a diuretic and mild laxative.
Apple (Malus domestica)
It is an edible fruit cultivated worldwide and is produced commercially on a large scale. Apple production countries include, China, United States, Turkey, Poland, Iran and Italy.
Peppermint (Mentha × piperita)
It is a hybrid mint also known as Mentha balsamea Wild produced by a cross between watermint and spearmint. It is found in Europe, Middle East, Argentina and the United Nations. It contains high menthol content and essential oils. Peppermint oil is beneficial for medicinal purposes, for instance it is used temporarily to treat irritable bowel syndrome, for muscle pain, nerve pain and itching.
Benefits of Hybrid Species
Plant species can breed easily and the resulting hybrids are mostly fertile. Plant hybrids are beneficial to produce viable seeds, for crop improvement, enhancement of production and quality of the fruits or vegetables.
Plant hybrids are more advantageous than animal hybrids because most of the animal hybrids cannot reproduce. Hybrid mules like Zeedonk could be useful for Humans as work animals.
Cama is a hybrid species of camel and llama is useful for wool production and certain beef hybrids have been produced to increase the quality and taste of meat in food industries.
Hybridization helps to produce stronger and efficient hybrid animals for instance, Cattles that could produce more amount of milk or meat.
Hybrids are produced with certain unique qualities inherited from both the species that makes them capable of surviving under different or even harsh environments and to feed on variety of foods.
Discover the intriguing world of generalist species in our detailed guide. Learn through vivid examples and fascinating facts about these adaptable creatures, offering a comprehensive insight into their diverse habitats and behaviors
Some species have been classified as Generalist to pin out their natural habitats and food resources that they survive on. Generalist species can survive on a wide range of foods and different variety habitats.These species are usually Omnivores and their diet consists of wide varietiesbecause they are not picky eaters.
They live in varied environments namely; large cities, mountains, forests throughout North America. They feed on Fruits, nuts, insects, human trash, eggs and frogs.
It is generally found in North America. They are adaptable species found in deciduous, coniferous. They are carnivorous and feed on animals like rabbits, mice, squirrels, moles, reptiles and birds. They hunt from dusk to dawn and are territorial.
They are also called Prairie wolf or Brush wolf found in Alaska, throughout the United States and Canada. They are territorial and mark their territory with urine and feces. They feed on Amphibians, fish, insects, reptiles, birds, rodents, mammals like deer, elk, sheep and moose. They also eat fruits and vegetables like, peaches, blackberries, apples, pears, carrots, watermelon, peanuts, grasses, grains and grasses.
Image Credit: Pixabay
Dingo (Canis lupus dingo):
They are also called Warrigal found mostly in Australia, Southeast Asia, Philippines and Indonesia. Dingoes are carnivores and feed on Kangaroos, wallabies, rabbits, small rodents, sheep and poultry.
They are also called Common blue butterfly or European common blue found throughout the Palearctic, Europe, North Africa and Canada. They feed on Leguminosae plant family.
This is the family of small white and yellow butterflies. They are mostly found in Palearctic regions including; Sothern Europe and England. They feed on Brassicaceae plant family.
Image Credit: Pixabay
Adonis blue (Lysandra bellargus):
They are also known as Polyommatus bellargus and belongs to the butterfly family Lycaenidae. They are found in Western, central and south Europe, South Russia, Iraq, Iran, Caucasus, and Turkey. Their food plant is Horseshoe vetch.
Southern brown argus (Aricia cramera):
It is also called Aricia cramera butterfly that belongs to the family Lycaenidae. They are found in Southern Europe, North Africa, Morocco, Tunisia, Spain and Portugal. They feed on Erodium, Helianthemum and Geranium plant species.
Cockroach (Blattodea):
Cockroaches comes in generalist species because of their ability to survive under various climatic conditions. They are found abundantly throughput the world. They can withstand extreme low temperatures which enable them to thrive in Arctic regions.
Humans (Homo sapiens):
They are the classic examples of generalist species. Humans have broad habitat range and are capable of feeding on various food resources.
Elephants (Elephantidae):
Savannah elephants are giant herbivores and feed on variety of food resources such as; Grass, sugarcane, nuts, Banana depending on their ability. They are found in habitats ranging from grasslands to forests including tropical evergreen forest, semi- evergreen forest, moist-deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, dry-thorn forest, cultivated and secondary forests.
American crows (Corvis brachyrhynchos):
Crows are the common birds that can find food and shelter in variety of different environments. They are found in cities and in wilderness, forest, deserts, mountains. Crows are omnivores and feed on small rodents, eggs, carrion, seeds, berries and garbage.
White tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus):
They are also known as Virginia deer found in North America. They are very common and widespread as they can be easily adapted to the wide range of habitats. They are found in regions including; temperate forests, wooded lowlands, open prairies, mountains, savannahs, tropical forests and wetlands. They feed on legumes, shoots, leaves, cacti, grasses, fruits, corns, carrots and mushrooms.
Opossums (Didelphidae):
Opossums are generalist species that live in wide range of habitats and can feed on variety of foods. They are mostly found in Shrubs islands, woods, farmlands, parks, suburbs and in urban areas. They feed on dead animals, insects, rodents, eggs, frogs, fruits, grain, plants, dog food, cat food and animal food waste.
They are the best-known example of generalist species just like humans. They have the ability survive in a wide range of environments. They are also called house rat, roof rat or ship rat. They were originated in India and now found worldwide. They are omnivores and feed on foods like, seeds, leaves, fungi, fruits, cereals, sugarcane, coconuts, coffee beans, and oranges.
Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata):
They are passerine bird found in North America, Canada. They eat seeds, nuts, soft fruits and arthropods. They are distributed throughout Canada, Florida, Texas, foot hills of Rocky Mountains, Labrador, Nova Scotia, Quebec and Manitoba. They feed on corn, grains, seeds, peanuts, berries, bread, meat, acorns, weed seeds and some vegetables.
They are categorized further into four sub species:
Northern Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata bromia)
Coastal blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata cristata)
Interior blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata cyanotephra)
Florida blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata semplei)
Northern Cardinals (Cardinalidae):
They are found in Canada, Northern Argentina, Uruguay, Central America, Hawaii and Bermuda. They mostly feed on fruits, seeds, insects, nectar and sap.
They are found largely in North America. They are further sub-categorized into three species: The Florida grackle, the purple grackle. The bronzed grackle. They are omnivores and feed on frogs, eggs, berries, insects, minnows, seeds, grains, small birds and mice.
Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major):
They are found throughout Eurasia, Japan, North Africa, Tunisia, Ireland, Aleutian Islands, Pribilof Islands and Alaska. They are omnivores and feed on beetles, spiders, Lepidoptera larvae, nuts, conifer seeds and fruits.
It is a songbird that lives in deciduous and mixed forests in US and Canada. They feed on Insects, seeds and berries. They have been classified as least concern by IUCN due too their large population.
Vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus):
They are found across Canada and Northern United states, including Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado. Their diet depends on the season, in winter they eat insects, seeds and plants like threeawn (Aristada), stinkgrass (Eragrostis), carpetweed (Mollugo), Clover (Trifolium), knotweeds (Polygonum) and neckweed (Veronica).
It is the most important food fishes and is called African freshwater chichlid. It is found in wide range of adaptations from trophic to ecological. It is found in the south-western Middle east, the Niger, Benue, Volta and Senegal rivers, Lake Chad, Tanganyika, Albert, Edward, and Kivu.
Ocean sunfish (Mola mola):
It is the heaviest known bony fish in the world. They mostly consume small fishes, fish larvae, squid, sea jellies, eggs, eelgrass and salps. They are found in Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
They are generalist species and are opportunistic omnivores. They are found widely distributed in North west pacific regions. Their diet varies geographically and with size. They feed on algae, plankton, kelp, periwinkles, barnacles and mussels.
Blueline surgeonfish (Acanthurus nigroris):
They are generally found in lagoons, seaweed reefs, mixed corals, rubble and sand throughout the central and western Pacific Ocean. They largely feed on filamentous algae.
Pros and cons of Generalists species:
Pros
They can adapt to a different environment very easily if somehow their habitat is destroyed and can feed on variety of foods if one type of food supply runs out.
They ae capable of competing with other organisms and are not easily endangered.
Cons
Generalists species usually have lots of competition with other species for a niche and could overpopulate easily.
In this article we are summarizing the details and examples of different bacillus bacteria examples.
Bacillus are the bacteria that resembles the shape of a “stick”, they belong to the Gram-positive bacterial genus which comes under “Bacilli” a class of the bacteria.In certain cases, they may turn into Gram- negative bacterial nature as they grow. Here are some bacillus bacteria examples.
B. acidicola is a novel bacterial strain 105-2(T). It was isolated from an acidic Sphagnum peat bog in Wisconsin, USA. It is a spore forming, mesophilic and acidophilic bacterium. Based on phenotypic, chemotaxonomic and molecular analyses it has been proposed as a novel Bacillus species.
Bacillus acidocaldarius:
They grow in the temperature ranging from 45-70o and pH range of 2.0-6.0. B. acidocaldarius are gram positive, acidophilic, thermophilic and endospore producing bacteria. Strains of A. acidocaldarius were first isolated from geysers in Yellowstone National Park and Fumarole soil in Hawaii Volcano National Park, U.S.
Bacillus aeolius:
B. aeolius is another novel bacillus species isolated from the water of a shallow hot spring at Volcano Island, Italy. It is a spore forming strain 4-1T which is aerobic, halophilic and thermophilic. This strain possesses crucial biotechnological properties like;
Exopolysaccharide production.
Surfactant activity and Utilization of hydrocarbons, which makes it a useful potential bacterium for industrial usage.
Bacillus aerius:
It is a novel strain 24KT which was first isolated from cryogenic tubes that are used to collect samples from higher altitudes. It grows at temperatures between 8-37 °C and a pH range 6-10. They are resistant to UV radiation and produces acid from a range of substrates by utilizing sugar, amino acids and carbon sources.
These are found in various alkaline rich environments as they are well adapted to alkaline conditions. These bacteria produce industrially useful enzymes, like, protease, cyclomaltodextrin, glucanotransferase, amylases, hemicellulose and cellulase.
Bacillus albus:
It was first isolated from marine sponge of St. Martin’s Island of Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh. These are spore forming gram positive, facultative anaerobes. Strains of Bacillus albus SMG-1 and B has been used as probiotics for the effective farming of white shrimp. A strain of B. albus JK-XZ3 which was discovered in China has been identified as a biological control agent against Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which causes crown gall in cherry saplings.
Bacillus alcalophilus
Alkalihalobacillus alcalophilus are found in highly alkaline wastewaters, soils, and animal manures. They are Gram positive, endo-spore forming, cylindrical, moderate halotolerant, obligate alkaliphile which grows at 40 °C and at pH 9-10.5. These are the group of industrially important microbes and possess the ability to maintain the ecosystem.
Bacillus alkalidiazotrophicus:
This bacterium belongs to the genus Anaerobacillus. It is strictly anaerobic, diazotrophic, spore forming bacterium found in soil. Strain MS6T is an obligate alkaliphile, grows in the pH range between 7.5 – 10.6. It has been proposed to be a novel strain of B. alkalidiazotrophicus based on the phenotypic and genetic comparisons.
Bacillus alkalisediminis:
B. alkalisediminis is a novel species, a strain of this is K1-25(T). It is an alkaliphilic and moderately halophilic found in the sediments of extremely shallow areas. It is a gram positive, non-motile endospore forming bacterium which shows an optimal growth at pH 9.0.
Bacillus altitudinis
Strain of this bacterium is 41KF2bT first retrieved from cryogenic vials which are used for air sample collection from higher altitudes. B. altitudinis is an endophytic bacterium that uses several different molecular mechanisms to accelerate growth of several plant species such as Glyceria chinensis, Arabidopsis thaliana, Nicotiana tabacum, Corn, Soyabean.
They promote plant growth by influencing the function of phytohormones (Auxin, cytokinin gibberellins, ethylene, abscisic acid), and enhance nutrient uptake, fix atmospheric nitrogen. B. altitudinis has also been identified to be a pathogen which was first reported in China in the year 2019 and 2020. They reported that the bacterium caused seed rot of pomegranate.
Bacillus alvei
It is a gram-positive motile cylindrical bacterium found in soil and water. Other habitats of this bacterium include gut of honeybee larvae, milk, mosquito larvae and wax moth.Paenibacillus alvei are pathogens that grows in a novel branched pattern. The optimum temperature range for their growth is 34-37 °C and a pH around 5.2.
They have been reported to cause American foulbrood, a bacterial infection in honey bees by producing a toxin called “Alveoylsin”. P. alvei acts as a secondary infector and a parasite in European Foulbrood with other species like, Brevibacillus lacterosporus, Bacillus pumilus, Achromobacter Euridice and P. dendritiformis.
This microbe has been found in clinal samples taken from Humans and proved to be causing infections in humans for example, urinary tract infection in chronic kidney infection P. alvei has also gained significance due to its antimicrobial efficacy against food-borne pathogens and tomato bacterial phytopathogens, that made it a possible biofertilizer.
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens
B. amyloliquefaciens is of a great significance for both the Humans as well as the environment. It is a rod like, gram positive bacterium found in soil all over the world and in dried foods. B. amyloliquefaciens has been known to produce two soluble proteins called Barnase and barstar. Barnase is a ribonuclease which is specifically inhibited by barstar. They have been used extensively to study protein unfolding and refolding.
B. amyloliquefaciens is one of the industrially important species, two of its strains, namely GBo3 and FZB42 are used in commercial formulations for promoting growth in plants. B. amyloliquefaciens has been genetically modified to make an efficient expression system for the production of industrial enzymes such as, thermostable α-amylase, β-glucanase as well as some homologous and heterologous proteins.
Bacillus anthracis
It is an obligate pathogen that causes anthrax in livestock and sometimes in Humans. The type of infection it causes is termed as zoonosis which means infection is transmissible from animals to humans. It is a cylindrical, gram positive, endospore forming bacterium first discovered by Robert Koch in 1876.
Bacillus asahii
These are gram positive, rod like, peritrichous flagella containing spore forming bacterium found in soil. They grow at pH range 6 to 9 and temperature between 15 to 45 °C. They have been known to remove the foul smell generated from short chain fatty acids, ammonia, indole and trimethylene present in the animal faeces.
Bacillus atrophaeus
A strain type is NRRL NRS-213 which is aerobic, spore forming, gram-positive, rod like black-pigmented bacteria. Because of its high resistance towards physical and chemical factors this bacterium holds potential biotechnological applications such as, biological indicators for sterilization, disinfection agent, a potential adjuvant.
Used for the production of antimicrobial compounds like, bacteriocin subtilosin A. B. atrophaeus C89 produce bioactive compounds like neobacillamide A and bacillamide C, isolated from marine sponges. It has the ability to produce biosurfactant proteins that are used as detergents and emulsifiers. It is a potential source of restriction endonucleases and Glycosylation inhibitor nojirimycin.
It has been used in nanobiotechnology for the delivery of biomolecules and drug delivery system. B. atrophaeus CAB-1 has been used as a biocontrol agent and for promoting growth of plants. It shows inhibitory action against fungal pathogens and used to suppress cucumber powdery mildew and tomato grey mold. B. atrophaeus UCMB-5137 grows in rhizosphere and inhibit fungal, phytopathogens, stimulate plant growth and the overall resistance of the plants.
Bacillus badius
They are spore forming, aerobic, gram-positive bacterium found in human intestines and figs. They have the ability to produce restriction enzymes and penicillin G acylase. A strain type of Bacillus badius NBPM-2993 is having plant growth promoting factors and grows in association with the roots of plants. Bacillus badius has shown to be an effective bacterium for the biosorption of lead deposited in the environment due to various industrial activities.
Bacillus barbaricus
Fictibacillus barbarous has been isolated from a wall painting in Austria. These are gram positive, cylindrical. Endospore forming bacteria. They are found in different environmental niches like, industrial waste, metal ores, fresh water, hot springs, metal ores, marine sediments and soil.
Bacillus borstelensis
It belongs to the genus Brevibacillus. It is rod like, gram positive, oxygen requiring, endospore forming bacterium. Strain type 707 is thermophilic and has the ability to degrade and use polyethylene under appropriate conditions. This organism has been shown to have the ability to degrade fungicide carbendazim and inert polyethylene.
Strain sh178 has been shown to enhance the decomposition rates from food wastes to biofertilizers. BCS-1 strain is involved in the production of pharmaceuticals products, food additives, insecticides, agrochemicals and synthetic sweeteners. AK1 strain for the degradation of plastic degradation.
Bacillus brevis
It is cylindrical, gram positive, aerobic, flagella containing bacterium. Common sources are decaying matter, soil, water, air. It is known to produce antibiotics such as gramicidin, tyrocidine and an enzyme called β-cyclodextrin glucanotransferase that catalyzes the degradation, conversion and cyclization of starch into β-cyclodextrin. Optimum growth temperature ranges in between 35 °C to 55 °C.
Bacillus chagannorensis:
It is gram positive, endospore forming, moderately halophilic, motile bacterium. They are facultatively anaerobes, isolated from lake. They grow 5.8 to 11.0 pH and 6-40 °C temperature. The type strain is CG-15(T).
They are of great significance in industrial field due to their ability to produce different enzymes including; barnase, alpha amylase, protease subtilisin, and BamH1 restriction enzymes. They have been known to play an important role in ecological field where they are used as an insecticide. It is also known to be a pathogen causing various infections like, ear infections, urinary infections, meningitis, septicemia and many others.
Bacillus choshinensis
They are found in soil, grows in the presence of NaCl at 50 °C and 5.5 to 9.0 pH. It has been genetically modified to produce heterologous proteins such as, cellulase, metalloproteinase and VHH antibody. It is a non-pathogenic bacterium which has been used for fermentation in food industry.
Bacillus chungangensis
It is designated as CAU 348T and is a gram positive, aerobic, endospore forming, halophilic motile bacterium. They are found in different salt habitats such as, salterns, estuarine water, salt lakes, salty foods, sea ice and deep-sea hydrothermal vents. The optimum temperature for growth is 4 to 45 °C and 4.5 to 9.0 pH.
Bacillus circulans
It is gram positive, rode-like, endospore producing, motile containing peritrichous flagella. Sources are soil, sewage, food, infant bile, gut of bee larvae. It is known to be a pathogen that causes sepsis in immunocompromised patients. B. circulans strain RIGLD BCI is used to produce secondary metabolites including antibiotics. They are facultative anaerobes, grows at 30 to 37 °C and 7.0 pH.
Bacillus clarkii
It is endospore forming, facultative anaerobic, gram positive, alkali-tolerant, alkaliphilic, endospore forming bacterium. A strain Bacillus clarkii 7364 has the ability to produce huge quantities of gamma cyclodextrin, it is alkaliphilic bacterium found in soil.
Bacillus clausii:
It is a gram positive, cylindrical, spore forming, non-pathogenic, oxygen requiring bacterium which is able to survive in acidic environments. It has been known for its use in the treatment and prevention of Diarrhea.
It is capable of surviving through the acidic environment in stomach and colonize in intestine even in the presence of antibiotics. Bacillus clausii has been proven to be effective to prevent recurrent respiratory infections (RRI) in kids. It is commercially available in small ready to drink bottles that is being used in a wide range to treat problems like flatulence and irregular bowl movements.
It is known to produce lactic acid and is similar to lactobacillus and other probiotics. It is a spore forming bacterium with the ability to withstand high temperatures. It shows anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. It is naturally found in intestine, and in curd and was first isolated from spoiled milk. It is being widely consumed by people to treat irritable bowl syndrome, diarrhea, gastric issues, respiratory infections and several others.
It is gram positive, non-pathogenic, spore forming facultative anaerobe. It is being used in food industries as a probiotic in its spore form. It grows in the temperature range between 35 to 50 °C and 5.5 to 6.5 pH range. It produces lactic acid by using wheat straw, sugarcane bagasse, sorghum, coffee extract, corn stover as substrates and Beta- galactosidase using fermented soya-bean as substrates.
Bacillus coahuilensis:
It is a free living, rod shaped, gram positive, flagellum containing spore forming bacterium found in high salt marine regions. A strain m4-4T found in Mexico from a desert lagoon is found to be aerobic that grows optimally at 30- 37 °C temperature and 7.0-8.0 pH
Bacillus composti:
It is found in compost and the strain is designated as SgZ-9(T). It is catalase-positive, endospore forming, gram positive, non-motile rods. Another strain type is N.8T which has been found in compost and is thermophilic. The optimum growth occurs at 30-60 °C temperature and 6.0-8.0 pH. It is known for its ability to reduce Fe (III).
Bacillus cycloheptanicus
It is a gram positive, strictly aerobic, endospore forming, acidophilic bacterium found in soil. The optimum growth occurs in the temperature range 40-53 °C and 3.5-4.5 pH. They contain omega-alicyclic fatty acid in their membranous lipid component which is novel among bacillus species.
Bacillus cytotoxicus:
They are gram positive, spore forming, aerobic bacterium found in soil, dust, dried plants, and foods such as rice, pasta, and pastry. They are capable of surviving in the wide range of environments, from psychrophilic to thermophilic and are also metabolically diverse. It is pathogenic and is a known food borne pathogen.
Bacillus daliensis
One designated strain DLS13T, which was isolated from Dali Lake, is a gram positive, alkaliphilic, facultatively anaerobic, spore forming bacterium containing peritrichous flagella. It grows in the temperature 10-45 °C and a pH range of 7.5 -11.0.
Bacillus are the bacteria that resembles the shape of a “stick”, they belong to the Gram-positive bacterial genus which comes under “Bacilli” a class of the bacteria. The structure of bacillus species has a purpose. The cell wall of the bacteria which acts as a protective barrier as well as maintains the rod shape of the cell and also helps the cell to combat turgor pressure.
Sources of Bacillus bacteria
The genus Bacilli is the member of phylum Bacillota, it contains around 266 named species which have been categorized based on their morphology, physiology and biochemical characteristics. As the Bacillus species is present extensively, they can be found easily in air, water and ground.
The most common habitat is the Ground, Soil environments and under plant undergrowth. They are the most common laboratory contaminants.
Image depicting uses of Bacillus in general. Image from BMC
In certain cases, they may turn into Gram- negative bacterial nature as they grow. They are present ubiquitously in nature. Bacillus bacteria are mostly aerobic but under certain conditions they behave as anaerobic.
In this article we are summarizing the flagship species examples.
Flagship is used as an icon for the representation of conservation movement. The concept of flagship species became known in 1980s.The focus is to prioritize certain animal species that are unique in an area and on the edge of becoming extinct.
Flagship species has been categorized into three different groups:
International flagship Species: This is a group of globally recognized species. Species include; Bengal tiger found in India but is globally known.
Cultural flagship species: This represents a specific culture or a group of people, for example, Bornean ironwood that symbolizes Dayak people. Tribal people use this plant for their rituals and medicinal purposes.
Ecological flagship species: This group represents species with unique diversity that includes Snow leopard which is an ecological and cultural flagship of Tibetan plateau.
Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris):
They are found in India and sometimes called Indian tigers. It belongs to Panthera tigris tigris subspecies. Their population is declining at a fast rate and has been added into endangered species by IUCN.
They belong to the genus Ailuropoda and the species name is Ailuropoda melanoleuca. They are also known as panda bear and found in China. They are the rarest and most threatened animals in the world.
They are found in Africa and are the largest walking animals on earth. This genus is comprised of two elephant species: African bush elephant (L. africana) and African forest elephant (L. cyclotis).
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus):
A species found in Tamil Nadu, India. They have been classified as endangered species by International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Pemba flying fox:
They belong to the species of bats, found on the Island of Pemba in Tanzania. They belong to the family Pteropodidae. These bats have been listed among vulnerable species by IUCN.
Chesapeake blue crab:
They are found in waters of Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. They are known as Callinectes sapidus, the blue crab or Atlantic blue crab.
World Wildlife Fund has kept Gorillas as flagship species over 50 years. There are four sub-species of Gorillas known:
Western Lowland gorillas (G. gorilla gorilla): they are found in the lowland forests of central and west Africa. They are the smallest but abundant of all the subspecies.
Cross River Gorillas (G. gorilla diebli): they have been listed as critically endangered species by IUCN. They are found in northern/western parts of Africa.
Eastern Lowland gorillas (G. beringei graueri): they are the largest of all gorilla subspecies and are also called The Grauer’s gorilla. They are found in the eastern parts of Democratic Republic of Congo. They are third adversely endangered among their subspecies.
Mountain gorilla (G. beringei beringei): They are found in the regions of Virunga Mountains in Rwanda and Uganda. They are second most endangered among four subspecies.
They are also known as pygmy chimpanzee. They belong to the Mammalia family and are considered to be an endangered ape. They are found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes):
It is a species of great ape found in the forests of Tropical Africa. They are listed as an endangered species in the IUCN red list.
White rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum):
They are also known as square-lipped rhinoceros. They are further divided into two subspecies:
The southern white rhinoceros: It is most common and widespread in south Africa.
Northern white rhinoceros: it is a rare subspecies of rhino found in east and central regions of Sahara in South Africa.
They are also called hook-lipped rhinoceros found in eastern and southern Africa. Their overall species have been listed among critically endangered.
Polar bear (Ursus maritimus):
They have been listed into endangered species by US Government. They are found in Arctic ecosystems. They are also an example of keystone species.
Sea turtles (Chelonioidea):
They are also called marine turtles. There are seven existing species of sea turtles which are found in US waters, that includes;
Australian flatback sea turtle (Natator depressus): They are found on the sandy beaches and shallow waters in Australia. They come under threatened species and has been named in the red list by IUCN.
Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas): It belongs to the family of large sea turtles. They are found throughout tropical and subtropical seas around the world and also in India Ocean.
Hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata): These are listed as critically endangered species. They are widely distributed in tropical reefs of Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
Leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea): They are often called as lute turtle or leathery turtle. These are the largest among all turtles. They are found in all tropical and subtropical oceans.
Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta): They widely distributed in Atlantic, pacific, Indian Oceans and Mediterranean Sea.
Kemp’s ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii): they are the rarest and endangered species among sea turtles.
Olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea): they are found most abundantly than any other in the world. They are found in warm tropical waters, Pacific and Indian oceans.
They are the marine mammals that belongs to the Trichechidae family and Trichechus genus. They are also known as Sea cows. There are three species of Trichechidae or Manatees:
Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis): it is found in Amazon basin in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador.
West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus): they are found in Florida, Texas, and Massachusetts. It has been listed in Endangered species. Based on their genetic and morphological studies they have been further subdivided into two subspecies; Florida manatee (T. m. latirostris)and Caribbean manatee (T. m. manatus).
West African manatee (Trichechus senegalensis): It is also known as African manatee found in western regions of Africa.
They are found near large open water bodies, in North America, Alaska, Canada and northern Mexica.
European Otter (Lutra lutra):
It is also known as Eurasian otter, common otter and Old-World otter. They are widely distributed and found in waterways and costs of Europe, northern Africa and Asia.
This tree is known worldwide and is a flagship species and a national tree of Chile. It is listed under endangered species.
Bornean Ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri):
This tree comes under cultural flagship and is used for medicinal purposes and rituals by the people of Dayak tribe.
Malagasy Baobabs (Adansonia):
These are called upside down trees with their swollen trunks and crown like small branches. It comes under ecological flagship and is found in Madagascar where it symbolizes the unique diversity of the Island.
The central objective of flagship species is to create awareness among people and to channelize the information about the biodiversity and the necessity for its conservation.
It helps in highlighting the unique species of animals and plants and make them iconic and popular throughout the world.
Secondary objective is to implement the strategies and ways to conserve various species throughout the world.
Limitations:
Marketing issues, conveying message to the audience through campaigns, multimedia.
Obtaining funding for conservation projects and to protect the endangered species.
